Doeschka J. Anschutz

Moderation of distress-induced eating by emotional eating scores.

Earlier studies assessing the possible moderator effect of self-reported emotional eating on the relation between stress and actual food intake have obtained mixed results. The null findings in some of these studies might be attributed to misclassification of participants due to the use of the median splits and/or insufficient participants with extreme scores. The objective of the two current studies was to test whether it is possible to predict distress-induced eating with a self-report emotional eating scale by using extreme scorers. In study 1 (n=45) we used a between-subjects design and emotional eating was assessed after food intake during a negative or a neutral mood (induced by a movie). In study 2 (n=47) we used a within-subjects design and emotional eating was assessed well before food intake, which occurred after a control or stress task (Trier Social Stress Task). The main outcome measure was actual food intake. In both studies self-reported emotional eating significantly moderated the relation between distress and food intake. As expected, low emotional eaters ate less during the sad movie or after stress than during the neutral movie or after the control task, whereas high emotional eaters ate more. No such moderator effect was found for emotional eating in the entire sample (n=124) of study 1 using the median-split procedure or the full range of emotional eating scores. We conclude that it is possible to predict distress-induced food intake using self-reports of emotional eating provided that the participants have sufficiently extreme emotional eating scores.

The effect of playing advergames that promote energy-dense snacks or fruit on actual food intake among children

BACKGROUND Previous studies have focused on the effects of television advertising on the energy intake of children. However, the rapidly changing food-marketing landscape requires research to measure the effects of nontraditional forms of marketing on the health-related behaviors of children. OBJECTIVES The main aim of this study was to examine the effect of advergames that promote energy-dense snacks or fruit on childrens ad libitum snack and fruit consumption and to examine whether this consumption differed according to brand and product type (energy-dense snacks and fruit). The second aim was to examine whether advergames can stimulate fruit intake. DESIGN We used a randomized between-subject design with 270 children (age: 8-10 y) who played an advergame that promoted energy-dense snacks (n = 69), fruit (n = 67), or nonfood products (n = 65) or were in the control condition (n = 69). Subsequently, we measured the free intake of energy-dense snacks and fruit. The children then completed questionnaire measures, and we weighed and measured them. RESULTS The main finding was that playing an advergame containing food cues increased general energy intake, regardless of the advertised brand or product type (energy-dense snacks or fruit), and this activity particularly increased the intake of energy-dense snack foods. Children who played the fruit version of the advergame did not eat significantly more fruit than did those in the other groups. CONCLUSION The findings suggest that playing advergames that promote food, including either energy-dense snacks or fruit, increases energy intake in children.

Eating styles and energy intake in young women

The aim of the present study was to examine the relations between restrained, emotional, and external eating and total energy intake, and total fat and carbohydrate intake controlling for body mass index and physical activity. The sample consisted of 475 female students. Energy intake was measured over a 1-month period using the self-report Food Frequency Questionnaire and eating styles were assessed with the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. Structural equation modelling was used to analyze the data. The results showed that restrained eating was consistently negatively related to energy intake and fat and carbohydrate intake, whereas external eating was positively related to all dependent variables. Emotional eating was not related to energy intake or fat and carbohydrate intake. Thus, restrained eaters seem to restrict their energy intake, while external eating was found to be associated with higher levels of energy intake, especially of fat intake.

Maternal behaviors and restrained eating and body dissatisfaction in young children.

OBJECTIVE The present study aimed at testing the relations between maternal weight concern and maternal encouragement to be thin as perceived by the child, and restraint and body dissatisfaction in young children. METHOD Cross-sectional data were collected among 501 children (aged 7-10), using self-reports on maternal behaviors, body dissatisfaction, and restraint. Height and weight were objectively measured. Model testing was conducted with M+, and multigroup tests were conducted to test differences between the sexes, and between younger and older children. RESULTS Associations between the childs perception of maternal encouragement to be thin and child body dissatisfaction and restrained eating were found, whereas the childs perception of maternal weight concern was primarily related to child restrained eating. No sex differences were found, but the relations were stronger for the older children. CONCLUSION Not only in girls, but in boys as well the childs perception of maternal behaviors plays a role. At primary school age children may become more vulnerable to possible maternal influences.

Effects of alcohol portrayals in movies on actual alcohol consumption: an observational experimental study

AIMS This study uses an experimental design to assess the effects of movie alcohol portrayal on alcohol consumption of young adults while watching a movie. Gender, weekly alcohol use and identification with the movie actor/character were assessed as moderators. DESIGN A two (sex) × two (movie: alcohol or no portrayal of alcohol) between-subject design was used. SETTING Participants watched a contemporary movie in a semi-naturalistic living room setting. PARTICIPANTS A total of 122 same-sex, young adult dyads (ages 18-29 years) participated in the experiment. MEASUREMENTS Their actual alcohol consumption while watching was examined. A multivariate regression analysis was used to examine the effects of the movie condition on alcohol consumption. FINDINGS Assignment to movie alcohol increased alcohol consumption during the movie for men but not women. Identification and weekly alcohol consumption did not moderate the relation between movie condition and alcohol consumption. CONCLUSIONS Viewing a movie with alcohol portrayal can lead to higher alcohol consumption in young men while watching the movie.

Side effects of television food commercials on concurrent nonadvertised sweet snack food intakes in young children.

BACKGROUND Exposure to food commercials is assumed to be related to childrens food preferences and snack food intake patterns. However, surprisingly few studies tested whether watching food commercials actually leads to elevated snack food intake. OBJECTIVE We experimentally tested the side effects of television food commercials on concurrent nonadvertised sweet snack food intake in young children aged 8-12 y. DESIGN The children (n = 120) watched a movie interrupted by 2 commercial breaks that contained either food commercials or neutral commercials. While watching, the children could freely eat palatable food. Afterward, they filled out questionnaires and were weighed and measured. RESULTS The main finding of our study was the interaction between commercial type and sex of the child. Food intake in boys was higher when they watched the food commercials than when they watched the neutral commercials, whereas food intake in girls was slightly lower when they watched the food commercials than when they watched the neutral commercials. CONCLUSION The results suggest that boys are susceptible to food cues in commercials.

The bold and the beautiful. Influence of body size of televised media models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake.

The effects of exposure to televised thin and average size models on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake were examined. Normal weight female students (N=104) were exposed to a 30-min movie clip featuring beautiful girls. Half of them viewed the movie clip in normal screen size (4:3) and the other half viewed the same movie clip in broad screen size (16:9), in which the body size of the actresses was slightly stretched breadthways. Actual food intake while watching and body dissatisfaction afterwards was examined. Additionally, restrained eating was assessed as a possible moderating variable. Two interaction effects were found between screen size and restrained eating on body dissatisfaction and actual food intake. Restrained eaters tended to feel worse and eat less in the average size condition compared to the thin model condition, whereas unrestrained eaters felt worse and ate less in the thin model condition compared to the average size condition. So, body size of televised images affected body dissatisfaction and food intake, differentially for restrained and unrestrained eaters. The screen sizes used correspond with widely used screen sizes nowadays enhancing the practical relevance of the study, since screen size might affect body dissatisfaction and food intake in daily life as well.

The effects of TV commercials using less thin models on young women's mood, body image and actual food intake

This study experimentally tested the effects of exposure to television commercials using less thin models on mood, body focused anxiety and food intake, as compared to the effects of commercials using thin models. In a naturalistic setting, 110 young women were exposed to a neutral movie, interrupted by two commercial breaks. The commercial breaks contained real commercials using either less thin (n=32) or thin models (n=39), or neutral commercials (n=39). During watching television, participants could freely eat snack food. Further, their mood and body focused anxiety was assessed. ANOVAs revealed no effects on body focused anxiety, but women reported a more negative mood and ate less after exposure to commercials using less thin models than after exposure to commercials using thin models. These results imply that using less thin models in commercials explicitly referring to the thin ideal does not make women feel better.

Impulsivity, “Advergames,” and Food Intake

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Previous studies have focused on the effect of food advertisements on the caloric intake of children. However, the role of individual susceptibility in this effect is unclear. The aim of this study was to examine the role of impulsivity in the effect of advergames that promote energy-dense snacks on children’s snack intake. METHODS: First, impulsivity scores were assessed with a computer task. Then a randomized between-subject design was conducted with 261 children aged 7 to 10 years who played an advergame promoting either energy-dense snacks or nonfood products. As an extra manipulation, half of the children in each condition were rewarded for refraining from eating, the other half were not. Children could eat freely while playing the game. Food intake was measured. The children then completed questionnaire measures, and were weighed and measured. RESULTS: Overall, playing an advergame containing food cues increased general caloric intake. Furthermore, rewarding children to refrain from eating decreased their caloric intake. Finally, rewarding impulsive children to refrain from eating had no influence when they were playing an advergame promoting energy-dense snacks, whereas it did lead to reduced intake among low impulsive children and children who played nonfood advergames. CONCLUSIONS: Playing an advergame promoting energy-dense snacks contributes to increased caloric intake in children. The advergame promoting energy-dense snacks overruled the inhibition task to refrain from eating among impulsive children, making it more difficult for them to refrain from eating. The findings suggest that impulsivity plays an important role in susceptibility to food advertisements.

The role of attentional bias in the effect of food advertising on actual food intake among children

This study examined the potential moderating role of attentional bias (i.e., gaze duration, number of fixations, latency of initial fixation) in the effect of advergames promoting energy-dense snacks on childrens snack intake. A randomized between-subject design was conducted with 92 children who played an advergame that promoted either energy-dense snacks or nonfood products. Eye movements and reaction times to food and nonfood cues were recorded to assess attentional bias during playtime using eye-tracking methods. Children could eat freely after playing the game. The results showed that playing an advergame containing food cues increased total intake. Furthermore, children with a higher gaze duration for the food cues ate more of the advertised snacks. In addition, children with a faster latency of initial fixation to the food cues ate more in total and ate more of the advertised snacks. The number of fixations on the food cues did not increase actual snack intake. Food advertisements are designed to grab attention, and this study shows that the extent to which a childs attention is directed to a food cue increases the effect of the advertisement.