T. van Strien

Assessment of emotional, externally induced and restrained eating behaviour in nine to twelve-year-old obese and non-obese children

Are there differences in eating behaviour between obese and non-obese children? Using the parent version of the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire (DEBQ-parent version), the results of the present study suggest an affirmative answer to this question. The scores for obese children were significantly higher on the scales for emotional, external and restrained eating behaviour. Relationships were found between emotional eating and negative feelings of physical competence; between external eating and negative feelings of self-worth; and between both eating styles and various aspects of problem behaviour. No relationship was found between external eating and locus of control. Higher scores on both scales were associated with greater caloric intake. These findings suggest that DEBQ can be used as a screening instrument for assessing eating styles of obese children.

Eating style, overeating, and overweight in a representative Dutch sample. Does external eating play a role?

This study examined which individuals in particular are susceptible or resistant to develop overweight in our current obesogenic environment. A cross-sectional study was conducted in a sample of 1342 people representative of the general population in the Netherlands. Overweight-level (normal body weight> or =17.5 BMI [weight in kilograms/height in meters squared, as self-reported] <25) versus overweight ((BMI> or =25)) and overeating, as measured by questionnaire, were assessed in relation to dietary restraint, emotional eating and external eating, as assessed with the Dutch Eating Behaviour Questionnaire. Both dietary restraint and emotional eating moderated the relationship between overconsumption and overweight, but that there was no (positive) main effect or moderator effect for external eating. It was concluded that dietary restraint may prevent people who overeat from getting overweight. An individuals final level of body weight may possibly be determined more by peoples tendency toward emotional eating than by peoples sensitivity to environmental food cues.

On the relationship between emotional and external eating behavior

Although there is a strong relationship between emotional and external eating, separate subscales for these behaviors have been constructed in the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire. This study tries to establish whether this distinction is justified. We studied relationships among self-reported ( 1) degree of emotional and external eating behavior and (2) problems with (a) emotional distress and relationships, (b) stimulus-boundness (inappropriate amounts of either too much or too little exercise, work, leisure activities, and spending money), and (c) problems with substance use (alcohol, illicit drugs, nicotine, or caffeine) in a sample of female students. No relationships were found between either type of eating behavior and problems with substance use. Furthermore, the significant relationship between emotional and external eating behavior and stimulus-boundness disappeared in the subsample who had problems with overeating. The fact that in all samples emotional eating was significantly related to problems with emotional distress and relationships (anxiety, depression, phobias, suicidal acts or ideations, intimate relations, and sexual contacts) but external eating was not, suggests that the two types of eating behaviors refer to independent constructs. Thus, the use of separate scales to measure these theoretically different aspects of overeating seems warranted.

Emotional eating, rather than lifestyle behavior, drives weight gain in a prospective study in 1562 employees

Objective:To examine the associations between the lifestyle factors—sports, alcohol, nutrition, overweight, and smoking, the eating styles of dietary restraint, external eating, and emotional eating on the one hand, and the change in body mass index (BMI) on the other hand. Methods:Using a Web-based lifestyle questionnaire, responses were obtained from 1562 employees. Results:We found a consistent main effect of emotional eating and doing sports on change in BMI. High emotional eating was related to weight gain, whereas a high level of sporting was related to weight loss. Restrained eating and external eating were not found to have a significant influence on change in BMI. Additionally, a consistent moderator effect of sporting on emotional eating was found (P < .05). The association between BMI change and emotional eating was less strong for employees with high engagement in strenuous sports compared with those with low engagement in strenuous sports. This indicates that strenuous physical activity can indeed attenuate the positive association between emotional eating and body weight gain. Conclusion:Emotions may drive people with overweight and obesity to overeat. Sports activities may attenuate but do not solve the problem. If we want to cure the disease, psychological treatment strategies have to be developed.

Eating style, overeating and weight gain. A prospective 2-year follow-up study in a representative Dutch sample ☆

This study examined which individuals are particularly at risk for developing overweight and whether there are behavioral lifestyle factors that may attenuate this susceptibility. A prospective study with a 2-year follow-up was conducted in a sample representative of the general population of The Netherlands (n=590). Body mass change (self-reported) was assessed in relation to overeating and change in physical activity (both self-reported), dietary restraint, emotional eating, and external eating, as assessed by the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire. There was a consistent main (suppressive) effect of increased physical activity on BMI change. Only emotional eating and external eating moderated the relation between overeating and body mass change. However, the interaction effect of external eating became borderline significant with Yes or No meaningful weight gain (weight gain >3%) as dependent variable. It was concluded that whilst increasing physical activity may attenuate weight gain, particularly high emotional eaters seem at risk for developing overweight, because overconsumption seems to be more strongly related to weight gain in people with high degrees of emotional eating.

Emotional eating and food intake after sadness and joy.

Do people with a high score on a scale for eating in response to negative emotions also show high food intake in response to positive emotions? We studied these effects in 60 female students that were preselected on the basis of extreme high or low scores on an emotional eating questionnaire. Using a between subject design we experimentally tested the difference in food intake following a mood induction designed to induce joy or sadness (the joy vs. sad mood condition). The high and low emotional eaters did not differ in their food intake, but emotional eating significantly moderated the relationship between mood condition and food intake. Whereas low emotional eaters ate similar amounts after the sad and after the joy mood condition, high emotional eaters ate significantly more after the sad mood condition than after the joy mood condition. A further finding was that a similar moderator effect for emotional eating was found for intake of sweet food but not for intake of salty food. These findings would suggest that eating in response to negative and to positive emotions refer to two different constructs.

The concurrent validity of a classification of dieters with low versus high susceptibility toward failure of restraint

It has been experimentally shown that the population of high restrained eaters consists of two subpopulations, i.e., those with a low and those with a high susceptibility toward failure of restraint. Only those who combined high restraint with high scores on the disinhibition scale of the TFEQ (Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire) showed overeating after a preload. The aim of the present study was to assess the concurrent validity of a two-factorial classification using the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire (DEBQ) scales for restraint, emotional and external eating, as well as the bulimia scale of the Eating Disorder Inventory (EDI) for locating dieters with low or high susceptibility toward failure. It was examined whether the resulting two-group classification is associated with self-reported behaviors and features of psychopathology, which are generally thought to differentiate both groups of dieters. The results indicated that the two-group classification was indeed associated with many of these behaviors and features of psychopathology. It was concluded that this classification has a good concurrent validity.

The validity of dietary restraint scales: comment on Stice et al. (2004).

In 4 empirical studies, E. Stice, M. Fisher, and M. R. Lowe calculated the correlations between some widely used dietary restraint scales and food intake. Failing to find substantial negative correlations, they concluded that these scales were invalid. The current article challenges this conclusion. For one thing, there is some evidence that restrained eaters do eat less than do unrestrained eaters under controlled experimental conditions favoring self-control. Dietary restraint is also associated with tendencies toward disinhibition under conditions favoring loss of self-control; such disinhibition often masks (but does not invalidate) the construct of dietary restraint. For these and other reasons, the assessment of food intake at a single eating episode may not capture overall dietary restriction. Finally, how much one eats does not necessarily indicate whether one has eaten less than one desired to eat. The authors suggest that the existing restraint scales do in fact validly assess restriction of food intake, albeit in a more complex fashion than is evident from simple correlations in single episodes.

Eating behavior, personality traits and body mass in women☆

In an exploratory study in women, the relationships between scales of emotional eating, external eating, and restrained eating, and body mass index (BMI = weight/height2) were studied, as well as the interrelationships between these three eating behavior components. In addition, the relationships between the three eating behavior scales and 19 personality scales were examined. Finally, differences between obese and latent obese women with respect to eating behavior and personality were investigated. Significant relationships were found between BMI and emotional eating, and between BMI and external eating/perceived hunger, but not between BMI and Restrained Eating. Also, restrained eating was found not to be related to the other two eating behavior components. Of the three eating behavior components, emotional eating was shown to have the clearest relationships with a number of personality traits. No difference was observed between the eating behavior of latent obese and obese women, but these groups differed as to a number of personality traits. These results are discussed in terms of consequences for prevalent theories on restrained, external, and emotional eating.

Restrained Eating and BMI: A Longitudinal Study Among Adolescents

OBJECTIVE Although restrained eating is believed to increase overeating and weight in the long term, the opposite has also been found: Heavy individuals are more likely to diet. The objective of the current study was to test both pathways for adolescents. DESIGN A longitudinal model was used to explore the bidirectional associations between restrained eating and body mass index (BMI). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES At 3 annual waves, restrained eating and BMI were obtained from both older (M age 15.2 years old) and younger (M age 13.4 years old) adolescent boys and girls who were sibling pairs in 404 Dutch families. RESULTS Structural equation modeling showed that BMI predicted restrained eating more consistently than the other way round. The results remained the same when analyzed by sex, age, socioeconomic status, and overeating tendency. Thus, in our general survey of adolescents restrained eating did not seem to be a successful weight loss strategy, nor did it consistently predict weight increase. CONCLUSION Positive associations between restrained eating and BMI should mainly be interpreted in the sense that higher BMI predicted more restrained eating.