Don L. Kurtz

Controlled Burn The Gendering of Stress and Burnout in Modern Policing

Despite the interest in the interplay between subcultural attitudes, organizational structure, and high stress events, most research on police stress fails to address a fundamental concern—that of gender. In fact, the majority of research addressing officer stress fails to mention gender or concentrates on gender as a simple control variable. Data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997-1999 study were analyzed to examine how gender affects stress and burnout in law enforcement. Findings indicate that stress and burnout by officers is embedded in the gender structure and process of policing and not simply a response to high stress events.

Roll call and the second shift: the influences of gender and family on police stress

Public perception and social research establishes policing as one of the most stressful professions in Western society. This research explores the influences of gender and family factors on police stress using data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997–99. Findings indicate that women police officers generally experience higher levels of stress, but specific work related events do not vary significantly between men and women. Parental and marital status exert a strong influence on the stress levels of women in law enforcement but have little to no effect on men in this sample. Findings support the conclusion that the ‘second shift’ remains as a source of stress for women officers and a potential hurdle to recruitment and retention of women.

Reinventing the Matron: The Continued Importance of Gendered Images and Division of Labor in Modern Policing

The current research examines the workplace images and responsibilities of female police officers in 3 departments. Ethnographic interviews with 28 officers in 3 midwestern communities indicate that women in law enforcement are still viewed through a gendered lens, which shapes relations with fellow officers and the community. Images of female officers correspond to their early role in law enforcement as matrons charged with the care of female offenders and juvenile delinquents. Results indicate that female officers are expected to care for children, delinquents, and female victims regardless of personal preference or individual skills, and institutional practices tend to maintain women officers in the devalued position historically held by police matrons. Subtle interactions between officers and the belief in so-called natural feminine instincts are utilized to maintain patrol work as a masculine enterprise.

Family Structure as a Social Context for Family Conflict: Unjust Strain and Serious Delinquency

Two major themes in the delinquency literature are the roles of family structure and childhood victimization. Combining these two lines of research, the current project examines the unique contribution of family structure and victimization on the serious delinquency of a nationally representative sample of adolescents. In addition, we examine whether the form of families serves to condition the relationship between victimization and delinquency. Past research indicates that abuse is more likely to occur in two-parent families of a “mixed” form, specifically in the presence of a live-in boyfriend or stepfather. However, little is known regarding the impact of victimization on delinquency across different types of family structure. Guided by a theoretical framework acknowledging that notions of justice influence the experience of victimization, our analyses indicate that, although victimization is more likely to occur in nonintact two-parent families, victimization is more likely to result in serious delinquency in intact families and single-parent families.

The Importance of Social Learning and Critical Incident Stressors on Police Officers’ Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence

Abstract Intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrated by police officers has been largely attributed to the unique critical incident stressors encountered in the field. While a large body of studies has documented a link between critical incident stressors and IPV among law enforcement, these studies have not examined whether experiencing child maltreatment and witnessing interparental violence also contribute to IPV perpetration. The current study uses data from the study Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland: 1997–1999 to examine the effects child maltreatment, interparental violence, and critical incident stressors have on IPV perpetration within a social learning and general strain framework. Results indicate that personally experiencing child maltreatment was associated with police officers perpetrating IPV later in life. In addition, women were more likely to report perpetrating IPV when compared to men. Studies that have not controlled for child maltreatment may not have provided a comprehensive test of the correlates of IPV in police families.

Applying Differential Coercion and Social Support Theory to Police Officers’ Misconduct

ABSTRACT The goal of this study is to test differential coercion and social support theory on police officers’ misconduct. Data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997–1999 are analyzed to test the propositions of the theory. Specifically, we test whether this theory can explain intimate partner violence (IPV) and problematic drinking perpetrated by police officers. Results indicated that two types of coercion (out of five) were significant in predicting IPV perpetration, while two alternate forms of coercion were significant in predicting problematic alcohol consumption. Anger was the only significant social–psychological deficit in predicting both dependent variables. Social support, mainly from family/friends and the department, only decreased the odds of problematic alcohol consumption. The current study provides further evidence that victimization continues to be one of the most consistent forms of coercion most likely to lead to criminal behavior.

The Influence of Early Strain on Later Strain, Stress Responses, and Aggression by Police Officers

Research has established policing as one of the most stressful occupations and that work-induced strain can lead to various criminal and negative outcomes. This study extends existing literature in criminology and criminal justice by applying general strain theory to police stress. This study examines the influence of prior strain—namely, child abuse and interparental violence—on officer critical incident strain, psychological–physiological stress responses, and officer-on-officer aggression. Data analyzed the stress responses of 1,104 police officers from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, and results show that prior strain events influence respondents in three key ways. First, those reporting exposure to childhood strain had higher work-related strain scores. Second, youthful strain events and work-related critical incident strain are associated with increased stress. Finally, child abuse exposure and critical incident strain increases the odds of officer-on-officer violence among participants. The sample offers several important implications for strain theory because it includes only adult respondents and offers some degree of control for serious adolescent delinquency.

Support, coercion, and delinquency: testing aspects of an emerging theory

This research tests aspects of differential social support and coercion theory of crime as proposed by Colvin, Cullen and Vander Ven (2002). The theory argues social interactions, either coercive or supportive, figure into development of self-control, delinquent behavior, and mental health. Coercive interactions involve force, direct and indirect intimidation and violence that compel compliance out of fear or anxiety. Coercive interactions can be employed consistently or erratically and individuals that are disciplined in an erratic manner will tend to develop strong anger directed toward others, low self-control, and weak alienated social bonds. These individuals are likely to become chronic offenders. Individuals that receive consistent coercion develop strong self-directed anger, high-externalized self-control, and weak social bonds. These individuals will have minimal legal difficulties, but are likely to have persistent mental health problems Social supports can also be erratic or consistent in nature. According to the theory, erratic social supports will generally result in low-self control, moderate anger, and intermediate social bonds. These individuals may engage in criminal behavior depending on the access to illegitimate social supports offered by criminals. Individuals that receive consistent support will have low anger, high-internalized self-control, and strong social bonds. These individuals are likely to display few criminal behaviors and possess high levels of pro-social behaviors (Colvin, Cullen and Vander Ven, 2002). Data are drawn from the 1995 National Survey of Adolescents (NSA), to examine the connection between support and coercion on delinquent behavior. Results indicate support for the theory among NSA participants as evidenced by Logistic Regression Analysis and we discus broader implications of the theory for criminal justice responses to juvenile offending.

Using Gottfredson and Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime to Explain Problematic Alcohol Consumption by Police Officers: A Test of Self-Control as Self-Regulation:

Problematic alcohol consumption by police officers is well documented in the literature. However, no study has utilized Gottfredson and Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime to determine what role, if any, self-control (i.e., self-regulation) plays in predicting this behavior. Therefore, data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997-1999 are analyzed to test the influence of work-related stress on officers’ self-control and problem drinking. Results indicated that self-control is significant in predicting problematic alcohol consumption by police officers. Two control variables (burnout and peer drinking) also predicted the dependent variable. The current study provides further evidence that self-control continues to be one of the most consistent factors most likely to lead to criminal behavior, including those committed by police officers.

Applying Differential Coercion and Social Support Theory to Intimate Partner Violence

A review of the current body of literature on intimate partner violence (IPV) shows that the most common theories used to explain this public health issue are social learning theory, a general theory of crime, general strain theory, or a combination of these perspectives. Other criminological theories have received less empirical attention. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to apply Differential Coercion and Social Support (DCSS) theory to test its capability to explain IPV. Data collected from two public universities (N = 492) shows that three out of four measures of coercion (i.e., physical abuse, emotional abuse, and anticipated strain) predicted IPV perpetration, whereas social support was not found to be significant. Only two social-psychological deficits (anger and self-control) were found to be positive and significant in predicting IPV. Results, as well as the study’s limitations and suggestions for future research, are discussed.