Egbert Zavala

The Importance of Social Learning and Critical Incident Stressors on Police Officers’ Perpetration of Intimate Partner Violence

Abstract Intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrated by police officers has been largely attributed to the unique critical incident stressors encountered in the field. While a large body of studies has documented a link between critical incident stressors and IPV among law enforcement, these studies have not examined whether experiencing child maltreatment and witnessing interparental violence also contribute to IPV perpetration. The current study uses data from the study Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland: 1997–1999 to examine the effects child maltreatment, interparental violence, and critical incident stressors have on IPV perpetration within a social learning and general strain framework. Results indicate that personally experiencing child maltreatment was associated with police officers perpetrating IPV later in life. In addition, women were more likely to report perpetrating IPV when compared to men. Studies that have not controlled for child maltreatment may not have provided a comprehensive test of the correlates of IPV in police families.

Applying Differential Coercion and Social Support Theory to Police Officers’ Misconduct

ABSTRACT The goal of this study is to test differential coercion and social support theory on police officers’ misconduct. Data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997–1999 are analyzed to test the propositions of the theory. Specifically, we test whether this theory can explain intimate partner violence (IPV) and problematic drinking perpetrated by police officers. Results indicated that two types of coercion (out of five) were significant in predicting IPV perpetration, while two alternate forms of coercion were significant in predicting problematic alcohol consumption. Anger was the only significant social–psychological deficit in predicting both dependent variables. Social support, mainly from family/friends and the department, only decreased the odds of problematic alcohol consumption. The current study provides further evidence that victimization continues to be one of the most consistent forms of coercion most likely to lead to criminal behavior.

A multi-theoretical framework to explain same-sex intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization: a test of social learning, strain, and self-control

Abstract Criminological theories used to explain intimate partner violence perpetration and victimization in heterosexual relationships have rarely been extended to same-sex intimate partner violence (SSIPV). As such, this study examines the predictability of social learning, general strain, and self-control to SSIPV perpetration and victimization. Using a sample of college students from two large public universities, results indicate that variables derived from general strain theory better predicted SSIPV perpetration than any other criminological theory (social learning and selfcontrol). Only one variable (depression) was significant in predicting victimization. Implications for SSIPV research and future directions are discussed.

The Influence of Early Strain on Later Strain, Stress Responses, and Aggression by Police Officers

Research has established policing as one of the most stressful occupations and that work-induced strain can lead to various criminal and negative outcomes. This study extends existing literature in criminology and criminal justice by applying general strain theory to police stress. This study examines the influence of prior strain—namely, child abuse and interparental violence—on officer critical incident strain, psychological–physiological stress responses, and officer-on-officer aggression. Data analyzed the stress responses of 1,104 police officers from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, and results show that prior strain events influence respondents in three key ways. First, those reporting exposure to childhood strain had higher work-related strain scores. Second, youthful strain events and work-related critical incident strain are associated with increased stress. Finally, child abuse exposure and critical incident strain increases the odds of officer-on-officer violence among participants. The sample offers several important implications for strain theory because it includes only adult respondents and offers some degree of control for serious adolescent delinquency.

When the Cop Is the Victim: A Test of Target Congruence Theory on Intimate Partner Violence Victimization Experienced by Police Officers

This study analyzed data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997-1999 (N = 753) to examine propositions derived from target congruence theory in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization experienced by police officers. Specifically, this study tested the influence of target vulnerability, target gratifiability, and target antagonism on IPV victimization. Results from logistic regression models showed that all three theoretical constructs positively and significantly predicted IPV victimization. Results, as well as the study’s limitations and directions for future research, are discussed.

Using Gottfredson and Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime to Explain Problematic Alcohol Consumption by Police Officers: A Test of Self-Control as Self-Regulation:

Problematic alcohol consumption by police officers is well documented in the literature. However, no study has utilized Gottfredson and Hirschi’s A General Theory of Crime to determine what role, if any, self-control (i.e., self-regulation) plays in predicting this behavior. Therefore, data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997-1999 are analyzed to test the influence of work-related stress on officers’ self-control and problem drinking. Results indicated that self-control is significant in predicting problematic alcohol consumption by police officers. Two control variables (burnout and peer drinking) also predicted the dependent variable. The current study provides further evidence that self-control continues to be one of the most consistent factors most likely to lead to criminal behavior, including those committed by police officers.

The role of religious coping on problematic alcohol consumption by police officers

Abstract Problematic alcohol consumption by police officers is well documented in the literature. It also shows that critical incident stress is correlated with this behavior. A separate body of research indicates that religious coping exerts a moderate protective effect on various types of problematic behavior, including problematic alcohol consumption. We merge these literatures in an effort to determine if religious coping reduces problematic alcohol consumption by police officers and whether it mitigates the positive relationship between critical incident stress and problematic drinking. Data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997–1999 are analyzed to examine these propositions (n = 1004). Results indicate that police officers with higher levels of religious coping were in fact less likely to report problematic alcohol consumption. However, religious coping did not mitigate the positive relationship between critical incident stress and problematic alcohol consumption. The implications of our findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Assessing the Role of Gambling on Problematic Alcohol Consumption by Police Officers

While a number of studies have attributed critical incident stressors to alcohol abuse among police officers, no study has examined the role gambling, if any, plays on problematic alcohol consumption. Therefore, data from the Police Stress and Domestic Violence in Police Families in Baltimore, Maryland, 1997–1999 are analyzed to test the influence of gambling on problematic alcohol consumption engaged by police officers. Results indicated that gambling is significant in predicting problematic alcohol consumption. Burnout, peer drinking, and self-control also predicted the dependent variable. The study’s results, as well as the study’s limitations and directions for future research, are also discussed.

Testing Target Congruence Theory on Emotional Abuse Victimization Experienced by Heterosexual and LGBQ College Students

ABSTRACT Criminological theories traditionally used to explain crime and deviance have now been applied to explain physical intimate partner violence (IPV) experienced by heterosexual and LGBQ victims. Notably missing, however, are studies that test theories that explain why individuals may become victims of emotional abuse by sexual orientation. To this end, we applied target congruence theory to examine the influence of target vulnerability, gratifiability, and antagonism on emotional abuse experienced by college students. Data obtained from two public universities (Heterosexuals=366, LGBQ=113) showed partial support for the theory, with target vulnerability consistently predicting emotional abuse victimization regardless of sexual orientation.

Applying Differential Coercion and Social Support Theory to Intimate Partner Violence

A review of the current body of literature on intimate partner violence (IPV) shows that the most common theories used to explain this public health issue are social learning theory, a general theory of crime, general strain theory, or a combination of these perspectives. Other criminological theories have received less empirical attention. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to apply Differential Coercion and Social Support (DCSS) theory to test its capability to explain IPV. Data collected from two public universities (N = 492) shows that three out of four measures of coercion (i.e., physical abuse, emotional abuse, and anticipated strain) predicted IPV perpetration, whereas social support was not found to be significant. Only two social-psychological deficits (anger and self-control) were found to be positive and significant in predicting IPV. Results, as well as the study’s limitations and suggestions for future research, are discussed.