Douglas Allchin

Values in Science: An Educational Perspective

Science is not value-free, nor does it provide the only model of objectivity. Epistemic values guide the pursuit and methods of science. Cultural values, however, inevitably enter through individual practitioners. Still, the social structure of science embodies a critical system of checks and balances, and it is strengthened by a diversity of values, not fewer. Science also exports values to the broader culture, both posing new values- questions based on new discoveries, and providing a misleading model for rational decision-making. Science teachers who understand the multi-faceted relationship between science and values can guide students more effectively in fully appreciating the nature of science through reflexive exercises and case studies.

Rekindling Phlogiston: From Classroom Case Study To Interdisciplinary Relationships.

First, I show how to use the concept of phlogiston to teach oxidation and reduction reactions, based on the historical context of their discovery, while also teaching about the history and nature of science. Second, I discuss the project as an exemplar for integrating history, philosophy and sociology of science in teaching basic scientific concepts. Based on this successful classroom experience, I critique the application of common constructivist themes to teaching practice. Finally, this case shows, along with others, how the classroom is not merely a place for applying history, philosophy or sociology, but is also a site for active research in these areas. This potential is critical, I claim, for building a stable, permanent interdisciplinary relationships between these fields.

Lawson's Shoehorn, or Should the Philosophy of Science Be Rated 'X'?.

Lawsons (2002) interpretations of Galileos discovery of the moons of Jupiter and other cases exhibit several historical errors, addressed here both specifically and generally. They illustrate how philosophical preconceptions can distort history and thus lessons about the nature of science.

History of Science--With Labs.

We describe here an interdisciplinary lab science course for non-majors using the history of science as a curricular guide. Our experience with diverse instructors underscores the importance of the teachers and classroom dynamics, beyond the curriculum. Moreover, the institutional political context is central: are courses for non-majors valued and is support given to instructors to innovate? Two sample projects are profiled.

Cellular and theoretical chimeras: piecing together how cells process energy.

AMONG THE fantastic creatures that Homer described in the Iliad is the chimera, a fire-breathing monster with the head of a lion, the body of a goat and the tail of a serpent. Biologically, the chimera is unimaginable-a quintessentially mythical creature. Yet as an improbable hybrid, it also served as a model for naming another, very real product of cellular biochemistry in the 1970s. Using a dramatic new experimental technique, chemists pieced together parts of cell organelles from different species.’ Though the fragments had been extracted from cells representing three different kingdoms, they functioned together to produce adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, the unit of energy in the cell. The chimeric vesicles were striking-and persuasive, as well. They helped resolve a deep theoretical debate about how cells process energy at the stage of oxidative phosphorylation. The experimentally produced cellular chimeras are thus important landmarks in the history of bioenergetics. They are also relevant to the philosophy of experiment. In this case, they represent a special category of ‘capstone experiments’. The chimeras demonstrated that several domains of experiment could be pieced together (though none of the individual elements was itself novel). The notion of a chimera, or a mosaic of divergent components, also describes how the broader controversy itself was resolved. The episode illustrates that, contrary to many models of scientific change, theories or models may be pieced together into ‘conceptual chimeras’. The image of chimeras thus offers a common theme for several significant conclusions about the history of bioenergetics, the philosophy of experiment, and the dynamics of conceptual change.

The Dogma of “The” Scientific Method

We endorse instead teaching about the Scientists’ Toolbox. Science draws on a suite of methods, not just one. The methods also include model-building, analogy, pattern-recognition, induction, blind search and selection, raw data harvesting, computer simulation, experimental tinkering, chance and (yes) play, among others. The toolbox concept remedies two major problems in the conventional view. First, it credits the substantial work—scientific work—in developing concepts, or hypotheses. Science is creative. Even to pursue the popular strategy of falsification, one must first have imaginative conjectures. We need to foster such creative thinking skills among students. Second, the toolbox view supports many means for finding evidence— some direct, some indirect, some experimental, some observational, some statistical, some based on controls, some on similarity relationships, some on elaborate thought experiments, and so on. Again, we think students should be encouraged to think about evidence and argument broadly.

To Err and Win a Nobel Prize: Paul Boyer, ATP Synthase and the Emergence of Bioenergetics

Paul Boyer shared a Nobel Prize in1997 for his work on the mechanism of ATPsynthase. His earlier work, though (whichcontributed indirectly to his triumph),included major errors, both experimental andtheoretical. Two benchmark cases offer insightinto how scientists err and how they deal witherror. Boyers work also parallels andillustrates the emergence of bioenergetics inthe second half of the twentieth century,rivaling achievements in evolution andmolecular biology.

The Evolution of Morality

Here, in textbook style, is a concise biological account of the evolution of morality. It addresses morality on three levels: moral outcomes (behavioral genetics), moral motivation or intent (psychology and neurology), and moral systems (sociality). The rationale for teaching this material is addressed in Allchin (2009). Classroom resources (including accompanying images and video links) and a discussion of teaching strategies are provided online at: http://EvolutionOfMorality.net.

Why We Need to Teach the Evolution of Morality

I present the case that the topic of the evolution of human morality is essential to any complete introductory biology course. This statement of rationale is accompanied (in complementary contributions) by: (1) a textbook-styled survey of recent literature on the topic, suitable for classroom use or as background for any teacher (Allchin 2009c); (2) a survey of current textbooks and available resources, with a brief discussion of teaching strategies (Allchin 2009d); and (3) a set of online resources (images and presentations) for classroom instruction (Allchin 2009a).

Beyond the Consensus View: Whole Science

The “consensus view”on the nature of science (NOS) is nowoutmoded. To help frame an enduring alternative, one should attend first to the “why”of NOS education. Functional, or civic, scientific literacy is foundational. Acknowledging a need for consumers and citizens to assess the reliability of scientific claims in personal and public decision making leads to an expansive, open-ended, and inclusive list of contextualized NOS elements—experimental, conceptual, and social—known as Whole Science. Any enduring reform also needs to consider practicalities, such as the challenge of assessment, the inevitable role of epistemic dependence (and lessons about expertise, trust, and science on artists), NOS education beyond the classroom, and the development of concrete lessons based on inquiry learning.RésuméLe « consensus » sur la nature des sciences/nature of science (NOS) est maintenant dépassé. Afin de définir ce cadre d’un autre point de vue durable, il convient de commencer par s’interroger sur le « pourquoi » de l’enseignement de la nature des sciences. l’alphabétisation scientifique en constitue la basez: le fait de reconnaître la nécessité pour les consommateurs et les citoyens d’évaluer la fiabilité des affirmations scientifiques dans la prise de décision personnelle et publique, mène à une liste ouverte et toujours plus étendue d’éléments contextualisésexpérimentaux, conceptuels et sociauxen nature des sciences, regroupés sous le nom de Science Entière ou Science Intégrale. Toute réforme durable doit également prendre en considération certains aspects pratiques tels que le défi que pose l’évaluation, le rôle incontournable de la dépendance épistémique (et les leçons à tirer de la compétence, de la confiance et des arnaques scientifiques), l’enseignement de la nature des sciences audelà de la formation scolaire, et la conception de leçons concrètes fondées sur l’apprentissage-enquête.