Douglas P. Fry

Patterns and Universals of Adult Romantic Attachment Across 62 Cultural Regions Are Models of Self and of Other Pancultural Constructs

As part of the International Sexuality Description Project, a total of 17,804 participants from 62 cultural regions completedthe RelationshipQuestionnaire(RQ), a self-reportmeasure of adult romanticattachment. Correlational analyses within each culture suggested that the Model of Self and the Model of Other scales of the RQ were psychometrically valid within most cultures. Contrary to expectations, the Model of Self and Model of Other dimensions of the RQ did not underlie the four-category model of attachment in the same way across all cultures. Analyses of specific attachment styles revealed that secure romantic attachment was normative in 79% of cultures and that preoccupied romantic attachment was particularly prevalent in East Asian cultures. Finally, the romantic attachment profiles of individual nations were correlated with sociocultural indicators in ways that supported evolutionary theories of romantic attachment and basic human mating strategies.

Are men universally more dismissing than women? Gender differences in romantic attachment across 62 cultural regions

Gender differences in the dismissing form of adult romantic attachment were investigated as part of the International Sexuality Description Project - a survey study of 17,804 people from 62 cultural regions. Contrary to research findings previously reported in Western cultures, we found that men were not significantly more dismissing than women across all cultural regions. Gender differences in dismissing romantic attachment were evident in most cultures, but were typically only small to moderate in magnitude. Looking across cultures, the degree of gender differentiation in dismissing romantic attachment was predictably associated with sociocultural indicators. Generally, these associations supported evolutionary theories of romantic attachment, with smaller gender differences evident in cultures with high-stress and high-fertility reproductive environments. Social role theories of human sexuality received less support in that more progressive sex-role ideologies and national gender equity indexes were not cross-culturally linked as expected to smaller gender differences in dismissing romantic attachment.

Lethal aggression in mobile forager bands and implications for the origins of war.

Ancient Warriors or Murderers? Some have suggested that the human predilection for war is ancient, perhaps dating back to the emergence of our species, while others maintain that evidence for such early warring is scant. Past studies that looked at nomadic foraging bands as models of early humans and their potential for conflict concluded that war is in our blood. Fry and Söderberg (p. 270), however, reexamined the standard cross-cultural sample, the main repository for behavioral data on forage bands, and found little evidence for large-scale conflicts or wars. Instead, the majority of incidences of lethal aggression in these societies were homicides driven by a variety of factors relevant at the individual or family scale. Nomadic foragers are less warlike than assumed, suggesting that war may not have been an early component of human behavior. It has been argued that warfare evolved as a component of early human behavior within foraging band societies. We investigated lethal aggression in a sample of 21 mobile forager band societies (MFBS) derived systematically from the standard cross-cultural sample. We hypothesized, on the basis of mobile forager ethnography, that most lethal events would stem from personal disputes rather than coalitionary aggression against other groups (war). More than half of the lethal aggression events were perpetrated by lone individuals, and almost two-thirds resulted from accidents, interfamilial disputes, within-group executions, or interpersonal motives such as competition over a particular woman. Overall, the findings suggest that most incidents of lethal aggression among MFBS may be classified as homicides, a few others as feuds, and a minority as war.

Cultural variation in conflict resolution : alternatives to violence

Contents: J.P. Scott, Foreword. Preface. Part I:Introduction and Theoretical Considerations. D.P. Fry, K. Bjorkqvist, Introduction: Conflict Resolution Themes. D.P. Fry, C.B. Fry, Culture and Conflict Resolution Models: Exploring Alternatives to Violence. K. Bjorkqvist, The Inevitability of Conflict, But Not of Violence: Theoretical Considerations on Conflict and Aggression. Part II:Cultural Influences and Conflict Resolution. J. Galtung, Conflict Life Cycles in Occident and Orient. C.A. Robarchek, A Community of Interests: Semai Conflict Resolution. D. Hollan, Conflict Avoidance and Resolution Among the Toraja of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. H.B.K. Cook, Conflict Resolution in Native Margariteno Society. E.G. Olson, Leaving Anger Outside the Kava Circle: A Setting for Conflict Resolution in Tonga. Part III:The Challenge of Resolving Ethnic Conflict. C. Nordstrom, The Eye of the Storm: From War to Peace--Examples From Sri Lanka and Mozambique. M.M. McCormick, Avoidance Strategies in Northern Ireland. J. Hjarpe, Historiography and Islamic Vocabulary in War and Peace: A Memento for Conflict Resolution in the Muslim World. S.F. Landau, Conflict Resolution in a Highly Stressful Society: The Case of Israel. I.M. Glazer, Beyond the Competition of Tears: Black-Jewish Conflict Containment in a New York Neighborhood. Part IV:Conflict Resolution as an Alternative to War. O. Arias, Esquipulas II: The Management of Regional Crisis. M.K. Meyer, Cooperation in Conflict: The Latin American Diplomatic Style of Cooperation in the Face of Foreign Threats. M. Klicperova, I.K. Feierabend, C.R. Hofstetter, Nonviolent Conflict Resolution and Civic Culture: The Case of Czechoslovakia. Section V:Socialization for Conflict Resolution. K. osterman, K. Bjorkqvist, K.M.J. Lagerspetz, with S.F. Landau, A. Fraczek, C. Pastorelli, Sex Differences in Styles of Conflict Resolution: A Developmental and Cross-Cultural Study With Data From Finland, Israel, Italy, and Poland. N.G. Guerra, L.D. Eron, L.R. Huesmann, P.H. Tolan, R.V. Acker, A Cognitive/Ecological Approach to the Prevention and Mitigation of Violence and Aggression in Inner-City Youth. D. Olweus, Tackling Peer Victimization with a School-Based Intervention Program. Part VI:Conclusions. E. Wiesel, D.P. Fry, On Respecting Others and Preventing Hate: A Conversation With Elie Wiesel. K. Bjorkqvist, D.P. Fry, Conclusions: Alternatives to Violence.

Differences between playfighting and serious fighting among Zapotec children

Abstract Patterns of fighting and playfighting were observed among Zapotec-speaking children of Oaxaca, Mexico, as part of an ethological field study. Focal and incident sampling techniques were employed to record the behavior of 3–8 years olds. It was found that real fighting could be distinguished from playfighting on the basis of facial and vocal intention signals displayed by the children of this age group. These two classes of behavior differed in a number of ways, including rate of occurrence, mean duration of episodes, variability of constituent actions, frequency of wrestling and chase-flee behaviors, level of restraint, number of partners, and reactions of nonparticipating children. The findings are discussed in relation to information on fighting and playfighting from other studies of human children. Limited phylogenetic comparison are also made. It is suggested that in studies of human children, play aggression should not be lumped together with real aggression, as is sometimes done, because these are motivationally distinct types of behavior.

Indirect modes of aggression among women of Buenos Aires, Argentina

This study utilizes the construct indirect aggression to investigate aggressive behavior among middle class Argentine women and men by administering an attitude and self-report survey to 95 inhabitants of Buenos Aires and by analyzing ethnographic interviews and observations conducted over a nine month period in 1992. An examination of sex roles in Argentina, including machismo and marianismo, provide a cultural context for interpreting aggression. Factor analyses revealed the presence of indirect aggression (e.g., social manipulation, gossip, exclusion) in addition to verbal and physical aggression. Survey and ethnographic findings converge in suggesting that women employ more indirect aggression than men, while men utilize more physical aggression. While competition and aggression are salient elements of social life for both sexes, women and men tend to favor different approaches. The findings are compared with the literature on female aggression from other cultural settings. We conclude that cultural and evolutionary perspectives elucidate aspects of female aggression.

Culture of Peace

In this chapter we explore how the Culture of Peace can be and in some cases is being actualized. First, noting that the United Nations resolutions on a Culture of Peace call for shifts in values, attitudes, and behaviors, we give attention to values that are supportive of peaceful attitudes and behavior. Second, we consider the nature and flexibility of social identity and how it relates to promoting a Culture of Peace. We suggest that humans are fully capable of forming multiple social identities, and drawing upon this ability, the promotion of a global identity in addition to lower levels of social identity can facilitate the development of a Culture of Peace. Third, and not totally separate from a consideration of values and identity, we focus on the role of interdependence and cooperation in promoting a Culture of Peace. A key point is that the promotion of a Culture of Peace does not exist merely in social science theory or in utopian dreams: The creation of a Culture of Peace is already an ongoing real-world process, and we consider several examples, such as the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) and the European Union (EU) as a regional peace system, to highlight this point.

Anthropological Perspectives on Aggression: Sex Differences and Cultural Variation

The purpose of this special issue of Aggressive Behavior is to present various topics and perspectives on the anthropology of aggression and conflict. First, a brief introduction to the articles in this issue is provided. Second, anthropological findings on sex differences in aggression are considered. The cross-cultural pattern is for males to engage in more frequent and more severe physical aggression than females. These observed sex differences are in accordance with the evolutionary concepts of sexual selection and parental investment. Simultaneously, it is dear that a host of proximate cultural influences also affects levels and styles of aggression in both females and males. Anthropological findings related to the indirect aggression concept also are discussed and tentatively related to gender. In the third section of this article, the nature and ramifications of the tremendous cross-cultural variation in aggression are explored. It is clear that nonviolent cultures exist, as do a range of more violent ones. It is also clear, as illustrated in several examples, that aggressive cultures can become dramatically more peaceful, and vice versa. Aggression can be viewed within the broader frame of conflict management; most cultures, in fact, use a variety of mechanisms for dealing with conflict that do not invoke aggression. In addition, consideration is given to intracultural variability in aggression, the multidimensionality of aggression, cultural meaning (beliefs) and aggression, and the controversy over actor-based (emic) vs. observer-based (etic) interpretations of aggression.

Play aggression among Zapotec children: implications for the practice hypothesis

This study evaluates a prominent functional explanation for play aggression, the practice hypothesis, employing data from a non-Western culture, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, Mexico. The practice hypothesis proposes that play aggression, sometimes called rough-and-tumble play, has evolved primarily as a “safe” way for young individuals to practice and perfect adult fighting and/or hunting skills. Ethological observations of 3–8-year-old Zapotec children (n = 48) form the basis for investigating serious and play aggression, and for evaluating predictions stemming from the practice hypothesis. Play aggression in Zapotec children is superficially similar to real aggression, but can be differentiated from aggression in a number of ways, such as by facial expression, nature of outcomes, and amount of behavioral variability. Rates of play aggression were not significantly different between Zapotec boys and girls; however, mixed-sex dyads during play aggression occurred less often than same-sex dyads. Play partners were closer in age than chance would predict, with initiators tending to be slightly older than recipients, except when boys initiated play aggression toward girls. Injuries during play aggression occurred very infrequently (in about 1% of the episodes), and children were more likely to stay together following play than following serious aggression. The Zapotec data are discussed in relation to predictions regarding play partner choice, sex differences, the overall nature (design) of play aggression (in relation to Zapotec adult aggression), as well as in relation to phylogenetic and cross-cultural considerations. It is concluded that most of the findings are consistent with the practice hypothesis. It is also suggested that because play and serious aggression can be distinguished and apparently stem from different underlying motivations, these behavioral patterns not be confounded as is sometimes done in observational studies of childrens aggression.

Life Without War

An emerging evolutionary perspective suggests that nature and human nature are less “red in tooth and claw” than generally acknowledged by a competition-based view of the biological world. War is not always present in human societies. Peace systems, defined as groups of neighboring societies that do not make war on each other, exist on different continents. A comparison of three peace systems—the Upper Xingu River basin tribes of Brazil, the Iroquois Confederacy of upper New York State, and the European Union—highlight six features hypothesized to be important in the creation and maintenance of intersocietal peace: (i) an overarching social identity, (ii) interconnections among subgroups, (iii) interdependence, (iv) nonwarring values, (v) symbolism and ceremonies that reinforce peace, and (vi) superordinate institutions for conflict management. The existence of peace systems demonstrates that it is possible to create social systems free of war.