Duane W. Crawford

A hierarchical model of leisure constraints

Abstract The purpose of this article is to modify a conceptualization of leisure constraints offered by Crawford and Godbey (1987). It is suggested that Crawford and Godbeys three discrete models of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints should be recast as a single integrated model in which leisure participants are viewed as having negotiated a sequential, hierarchical series of constraints levels. Three propositions about the nature, operation, and sources of constraints are derived from this model. We further demonstrate how such a process might apply not only to leisure participation and nonparticipation, but also to the understanding of how constraints affect choices (e.g., specialization) among people who are already participating.

Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure

Abstract While research indicates that leisure is an important source of both family cohesion and conflict, comparatively little attention has been given to the development of conceptual models which define the nature and operation of leisure barriers. Traditionally, barriers have been assumed to constitute intervening variables in the leisure preference‐participation relationship. This paper suggests that the prevailing conceptualization of leisure barriers addresses only one of the ways in which barriers may be associated with preferences and participation. The model proposed in this paper considers barriers to be of three types: (1) intrapersonal barriers, wherein the primary relationship of importance is between preferences and barriers; (2) interpersonal barriers, which result from either the non‐correspondence of individuals’ intrapersonal barriers or from the behavioral patterning of interpersonal relations, thus indicating a relationship with both preferences and participation; and (3) structural ...

Negotiation of leisure constraints

Abstract Virtually all past leisure constraints research has been based on a conception of constraints as insurmountable obstacles to leisure participation. Thus, it has typically been assumed that if an individual encounters a constraint, the outcome will be nonparticipation. This article elaborates an alternative view of constraints that has recently begun to appear in the literature, summarized in the central proposition that leisure participation is dependent not on the absence of constraints but on negotiation through them. Such negotiation may modify participation rather than foreclosing it. Evidence from the existing literature for the negotiation proposition is examined, and five additional propositions are defined concerning relative success in negotiating constraints, interactions between different types of constraints, and balance between constraints and motivations.

Nature and process of leisure constraints: An empirical test

Abstract This study examined the possible existence of three distinct, hierarchically ordered categories of constraints on leisure originally proposed by Crawford and Godbey (1987) and elaborated on by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991). A new instrument was developed to measure perceptions of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints on leisure as they related to beginning a new leisure activity. The sample consisted of 363 male and female 12th graders from three high schools located in a suburb of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints on leisure formed three distinct categories of constraints on leisure. The use of simultaneous z tests and a metamodel that utilized a binomial test provided support for the Crawford et al. (1991) proposal that intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints exist in a hierarchy. Theoretical and methodological implications of the findings are discussed.

Self-Esteem, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status: Their Relation to Perceptions of Constraint on Leisure among Adolescents

This study was based upon a model of constraints on leisure originally proposed by Crawford and Godbey (1987), and elaborated upon recently by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991). The study sought...

Assessing hierarchical leisure constraints theory after two decades.

Abstract This article assesses the status of hierarchical leisure constraints theory (Crawford & Godbey, 1987; Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey, 1991) regarding many issues. Such issues include clarification and elaboration of some aspects of the original model, a review of studies which have used or examined the model and the extent to which they are confirmatory, critiques of the original model by various authors, and avenues for further research. Conclusions drawn include that the model is cross culturally relevant, that the model may examine forms of behavior other than leisure, and that, while research to date has been largely confirmatory, there is a high potential for the theory to be expanded in order to advance leisure constraints research to the next level.

The Stability of Leisure Preferences.

The present study investigated the stability of leisure preferences across a two-year time span. Leisure preference data were collected from 126 married couples shortly after their marriages (1981)...

Codependency and Parenting Styles.

This study examined the association between the parent-child relationship (as perceived by late adolescent-early adult children) and the adolescents codependency. College students 17through 22 years of age (N = 175) reported the parenting style of their mother and father (via ratings of perceived parental support and coercive control) and completed a scale assessing their own level of codependency. Parenting style (uninvolved, permissive, authoritarian, and democratic) was related to offspring codependency in that daughters of authoritarian fathers had higher codependency scores than did daughters of permissive fathers, whereas sons of authoritarian fathers reported higher levels of codependency than did sons of uninvolved fathers. It appeared that the exercise of control on the partoffathers untempered byperceptions ofpaternal warmth or support was related to higher codependency scores in offspring. Parenting style of mothers was unrelated to codependency scores in offspring. Future research should investigate other indirect as well as direct associations of parenting with offspring codependency.

The Role of Network Support and Interference in Women's Perception of Romantic, Friend, and Parental Relationships

This study examined the association between support/interference from the best friend and closest parent to womens (a) satisfaction with the parent–daughter relationship, (b) satisfaction with the friendship, and (c) love for the romantic partner. The respondents (n = 162 females; 84% Caucasian, 1% Asian American, 10% Hispanic, 4% African American, and 1% Multiracial) completed a questionnaire packet to assess each of the factors. Results revealed that romantic love was unrelated to friend support, friend interference, or parental interference, but positively related to parental support. Parent support was a significant correlate of parent satisfaction, and a similar pattern emerged between friend support/friendship satisfaction. Further, best friend support moderated the relationship between friend interference and friendship satisfaction, such that interference was negatively related to satisfaction in low support conditions. Overall, the results suggested that network reactions to romance played a limited role in romantic affection, but were more strongly associated with network satisfaction.

The Impact of Work–Family Conflict and Facilitation on Women’s Perceptions of Role Balance

This study investigated married women’s feelings of balance between their occupational and family roles. Data from 274 married and full-time employed women were collected and structural equation modeling techniques were used to assess the connection between their work and leisure lives, work–family conflict and work–family facilitation, and role balance. Women’s satisfaction with their experiences at work and at home, the time they spent in each sphere, and the social support they received from others in each domain were considered. Women’s satisfaction with their workplace and family experiences, most notably, spousal support, were positively related to feelings of role balance. The results of this study suggested that satisfaction with experience in one sphere is stronger and more important than the hours spent doing activities in that sphere when accounting for married women’s role balance.