Geoffrey Godbey

A hierarchical model of leisure constraints

Abstract The purpose of this article is to modify a conceptualization of leisure constraints offered by Crawford and Godbey (1987). It is suggested that Crawford and Godbeys three discrete models of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints should be recast as a single integrated model in which leisure participants are viewed as having negotiated a sequential, hierarchical series of constraints levels. Three propositions about the nature, operation, and sources of constraints are derived from this model. We further demonstrate how such a process might apply not only to leisure participation and nonparticipation, but also to the understanding of how constraints affect choices (e.g., specialization) among people who are already participating.

Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure

Abstract While research indicates that leisure is an important source of both family cohesion and conflict, comparatively little attention has been given to the development of conceptual models which define the nature and operation of leisure barriers. Traditionally, barriers have been assumed to constitute intervening variables in the leisure preference‐participation relationship. This paper suggests that the prevailing conceptualization of leisure barriers addresses only one of the ways in which barriers may be associated with preferences and participation. The model proposed in this paper considers barriers to be of three types: (1) intrapersonal barriers, wherein the primary relationship of importance is between preferences and barriers; (2) interpersonal barriers, which result from either the non‐correspondence of individuals’ intrapersonal barriers or from the behavioral patterning of interpersonal relations, thus indicating a relationship with both preferences and participation; and (3) structural ...

Negotiation of leisure constraints

Abstract Virtually all past leisure constraints research has been based on a conception of constraints as insurmountable obstacles to leisure participation. Thus, it has typically been assumed that if an individual encounters a constraint, the outcome will be nonparticipation. This article elaborates an alternative view of constraints that has recently begun to appear in the literature, summarized in the central proposition that leisure participation is dependent not on the absence of constraints but on negotiation through them. Such negotiation may modify participation rather than foreclosing it. Evidence from the existing literature for the negotiation proposition is examined, and five additional propositions are defined concerning relative success in negotiating constraints, interactions between different types of constraints, and balance between constraints and motivations.

Nature and process of leisure constraints: An empirical test

Abstract This study examined the possible existence of three distinct, hierarchically ordered categories of constraints on leisure originally proposed by Crawford and Godbey (1987) and elaborated on by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991). A new instrument was developed to measure perceptions of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints on leisure as they related to beginning a new leisure activity. The sample consisted of 363 male and female 12th graders from three high schools located in a suburb of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints on leisure formed three distinct categories of constraints on leisure. The use of simultaneous z tests and a metamodel that utilized a binomial test provided support for the Crawford et al. (1991) proposal that intrapersonal, interpersonal, and structural constraints exist in a hierarchy. Theoretical and methodological implications of the findings are discussed.

Self-Esteem, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status: Their Relation to Perceptions of Constraint on Leisure among Adolescents

This study was based upon a model of constraints on leisure originally proposed by Crawford and Godbey (1987), and elaborated upon recently by Crawford, Jackson, and Godbey (1991). The study sought...

The Interaction of Stress and Park Use on Psycho-Physiological Health in Older Adults

Stress can have a negative influence on psychological and physical health, particularly among older adults. However, park-based leisure experiences, can have a positive influence upon mood states, stress, and health of this population. This study examined the relationship between stress, park-based leisure, and physiological/psychological health among older adults (ages 50–86). There were significant interactive effects between: 1) stress and length of park stay and, 2) stress and desired health benefits in their relationship to the physiological health indicator, body mass index (BMI). There were also direct relationships between park companionship and perceived physical health and between length of park stay and lower systolic blood pressures. This study offers early evidence that park-based leisure experiences correspond with physiological health indicators among older adults. Implications for future health-based leisure research and policy are discussed.

Gender and Ethnic Variations in Urban Park Preferences, Visitation, and Perceived Benefits

This paper examined how gender and ethnicity are related to preferences for various park characteristics, visitation to urban parks and open spaces, and perception of park benefits as reported by participants in a mail survey of residents in two metropolitan areas in the eastern United States. In total, 1570 questionnaires were completed, but 65 cases were deleted because they failed to identify their ethnicity or gender. The overall response rate for the survey was approximately 27%. Although women were more likely than men to evaluate some park characteristics as “important,” there were no significant gender differences/variation in the types of visits or the perceived benefits of parks. There was significant ethnic variation in preferred park attributes, frequency and type of visits, and perceptions of the positive and negative effects of parks. However, the effects of ethnicity were not found to differ for men and women.

Assessing hierarchical leisure constraints theory after two decades.

Abstract This article assesses the status of hierarchical leisure constraints theory (Crawford & Godbey, 1987; Crawford, Jackson, & Godbey, 1991) regarding many issues. Such issues include clarification and elaboration of some aspects of the original model, a review of studies which have used or examined the model and the extent to which they are confirmatory, critiques of the original model by various authors, and avenues for further research. Conclusions drawn include that the model is cross culturally relevant, that the model may examine forms of behavior other than leisure, and that, while research to date has been largely confirmatory, there is a high potential for the theory to be expanded in order to advance leisure constraints research to the next level.

An analysis of adult play groups: Social versus serious participation in contract bridge

Abstract Missing from the study of leisure behavior is a research tradition expressly devoted to the study of adult play groups. This article presents a social world perspective for analyzing such groups and frames the analysis of play groups in terms of both individual interactants and the broader social world in which the groups are a part. The social world perspective provided the basis for exploring the nature of adult participation within a distinct social world—contract bridge. Results from a yearlong study of bridge groups in a town fictitiously named Glenn Valley revealed that bridge players used the terms social and serious as frames of reference in defining what constitutes legitimate bridge activity and in determining people with whom it is acceptable to play bridge. The use of these terms was pervasive enough to support the conclusion that the bridge scene in Glenn Valley is segmented into two distinct components: one composed largely of social groups and the other of serious groups. Social an...

The role of social support and self-efficacy in shaping the leisure time physical activity of older adults.

Lack of social support and low self-efficacy are important barriers to regular exercise and physical activity. However, it is unclear whether these resources contribute significantly to CDC recommended physical activity levels and which of these factors (and their associated sub-domains) are more robust in relating to leisure time physical activity (LTPA) among older adults. This study examines the role of social support and self-efficacy in shaping recommended levels of older adult LTPA from five cities across the United States. Results indicated that social support provided by friends (rather than family) and the self-efficacy domain of perceived physical ability were significantly related to LTPA as measured through Metabolic Equivalents (METS). Consistent with prior research, age and health were also significantly related to LTPA. Findings suggest that inter-personal resources and intra-personal resources both play an equal role in shaping LTPA of older adults. Suggestions for promoting LTPA of older adults are discussed.