Edward A. Ajhar

The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. IV. SBF Magnitudes, Colors, and Distances*

We report data for I-band surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) magnitudes, (V-I) colors, and distance moduli for 300 galaxies. The survey contains E, S0, and early-type spiral galaxies in the proportions of 49 : 42 : 9 and is essentially complete for E galaxies to Hubble velocities of 2000 km s-1, with a substantial sampling of E galaxies out to 4000 km s-1. The median error in distance modulus is 0.22 mag. We also present two new results from the survey. (1) We compare the mean peculiar flow velocity (bulk flow) implied by our distances with predictions of typical cold dark matter transfer functions as a function of scale, and we find very good agreement with cold, dark matter cosmologies if the transfer function scale parameter Γ and the power spectrum normalization σ8 are related by σ8Γ-0.5 ≈ 2 ± 0.5. Derived directly from velocities, this result is independent of the distribution of galaxies or models for biasing. This modest bulk flow contradicts reports of large-scale, large-amplitude flows in the ~200 Mpc diameter volume surrounding our survey volume. (2) We present a distance-independent measure of absolute galaxy luminosity, and show how it correlates with galaxy properties such as color and velocity dispersion, demonstrating its utility for measuring galaxy distances through large and unknown extinction.

The centers of early-type galaxies with HST. IV. Central parameter relations

We analyze Hubble Space Telescope surface-brightness profiles of 61 elliptical galaxies and spiral bulges (hot galaxies). Luminous hot galaxies have cuspy cores with steep outer power-law profiles that break at r ~ r_b to shallow inner profiles with logslope less than 0.3. Faint hot galaxies show steep, largely featureless power-law profiles at all radii and lack cores. The centers of power-law galaxies are up to 1000 times denser in mass and luminosity than the cores of large galaxies at a limiting radius of 10 pc. At intermediate magnitudes (-22.0 < M_V < -20.5), core and power-law galaxies coexist, and there is a range in r_b at a given luminosity of at least two orders of magnitude. Central properties correlate with global rotation and shape: core galaxies tend to be boxy and slowly rotating, whereas power-law galaxies tend to be disky and rapidly rotating. The dense power-law centers of disky, rotating galaxies are consistent with their formation in gas-rich mergers. The parallel proposition that cores are simply the by-products of gas-free stellar mergers is less compelling. For example, core galaxies accrete small, dense, gas-free galaxies at a rate sufficient to fill in low-density cores if the satellites survived and sank to the center. An alternative model for core formation involves the orbital decay of massive black holes (BHs): the BH may heat and eject stars from the center, eroding a power law if any exists and scouring out a core. An average BH mass per spheroid of 0.002 times the stellar mass yields reasonably good agreement with the masses and radii of observed cores and in addition is consistent with the energetics of AGNs and kinematic detections of BHs in nearby galaxies.

The Surface Brightness Fluctuation Survey of Galaxy Distances. II. Local and Large-Scale Flows* **

We present results from the Surface Brightness Fluctuation (SBF) Survey for the distances to 300 early-type galaxies, of which approximately half are ellipticals. A modest change in the zero point of the SBF relation, derived by using Cepheid distances to spirals with SBF measurements, yields a Hubble constant H0 = 77 ? 4 ? 7?km?s-1 Mpc-1, somewhat larger than the HST Key Project result. We discuss how this difference arises from a different choice of zero point, a larger sample of galaxies, and a different model for large-scale flows. Our result is 4% larger than found in a recent comparison of the SBF Survey peculiar velocities with predictions derived from the galaxy density field measured by redshift surveys (Blakeslee et al. 1999b). The zero point of the SBF relation is the largest source of uncertainty, and our value for H0 is subject to all the systematic uncertainties of the Key Project zero point, including a 5% decrease if a metallicity correction for the Cepheids is adopted. To analyze local and large-scale flows?departures from smooth Hubble flow?we use a parametric model for the distribution function of mean velocity and velocity dispersion at each point in space. These models include a uniform thermal velocity dispersion and spherical attractors whose position, amplitude, and radial shape are free to vary. Our modeling procedure performs a maximum likelihood fit of the model to the observations. Our models rule out a uniform Hubble flow as an acceptable fit to the data. Inclusion of two attractors, one of which having a best-fit location coincident with the Virgo cluster and the other having a fit location slightly beyond the Centaurus clusters (which we refer to by convention as the Great Attractor), reduces ?2/N from 2.1 to 1.1. The fits to these attractors both have radial profiles such that v ? r-1 (i.e., isothermal) over a range of overdensity between about 10 and 1, but fall off more steeply at larger radius. The best-fit value for the small-scale, cosmic thermal velocity is 180 ? 14 km?s-1. The quality of the fit can be further improved by the addition of a quadrupole correction to the Hubble flow. The dipole velocity offset from the CMB frame for the volume we survey (amplitude ~150?km?s-1) and the quadrupole may be genuine (though weak) manifestations of more distant density fluctuations, but we find evidence that they are more likely due to the inadequacy of spherical models to describe the density profile of the attractors. The residual dipole we find is comparable to the systematic error in these simple, parametrized models; in other words, our survey volume of R < 3000?km?s-1 is, in a mass averaged sense, essentially at rest with respect to the CMB. This contradicts claims of large amplitude flows in much larger volumes that include our sample. Our best-fitting model, which uses attenuated power-law mass distributions for the two attractors, has enclosed mass overdensities at the Local Group of 7 ? 1014 M? for the Virgo Attractor and 9 ? 1015 M? for the Great Attractor. Without recourse to information about the overdensities of these attractors with respect to the cosmic mean we cannot provide a good constraint on ?M, but our data do give us accurate measurements in terms of ?, the overdensities of the enclosed masses with respect to the background: ? ? = 0.33 for the Virgo Attractor and ? ? = 0.27 for the Great Attractor.

Measuring Distances and Probing the Unresolved Stellar Populations of Galaxies Using Infrared Surface Brightness Fluctuations

To empirically calibrate the IR surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) distance scale and probe the properties of unresolved stellar populations, we measured fluctuations in 65 galaxies using NICMOS on the Hubble Space Telescope. The early-type galaxies in this sample include elliptical and S0 galaxies and spiral bulges in a variety of environments. Absolute fluctuation magnitudes in the F160W (1.6 ?m) filter (F160W) were derived for each galaxy using previously measured I-band SBF and Cepheid variable star distances. F160W SBFs can be used to measure distances to early-type galaxies with a relative accuracy of ~10%, provided that the galaxy color is known to ~0.035 mag or better. Near-IR fluctuations can also reveal the properties of the most luminous stellar populations in galaxies. Comparison of F160W fluctuation magnitudes and optical colors to stellar population model predictions suggests that bluer elliptical and S0 galaxies have significantly younger populations than redder ones and may also be more metal-rich. There are no galaxies in this sample with fluctuation magnitudes consistent with old, metal-poor (t > 5 Gyr, [Fe/H] < -0.7) stellar population models. Composite stellar population models imply that bright fluctuations in the bluer galaxies may be the result of an episode of recent star formation in a fraction of the total mass of a galaxy. Age estimates from the F160W fluctuation magnitudes are consistent with those measured using the H? Balmer-line index. The two types of measurements make use of completely different techniques and are sensitive to stars in different evolutionary phases. Both techniques reveal the presence of intermediate-age stars in the early-type galaxies of this sample.

THE CENTERS OF EARLY-TYPE GALAXIES WITH HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE. V. NEW WFPC2 PHOTOMETRY

We present observations of 77 early-type galaxies imaged with the PC1 CCD of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) WFPC2. Nuker-law parametric fits to the surface brightness profiles are used to classify the central structure into core or power-law forms. Core galaxies are typically rounder than power-law galaxies. Nearly all power-law galaxies with central ellipticities ? 0.3 have stellar disks, implying that disks are present in power-law galaxies with < 0.3 but are not visible because of unfavorable geometry. A few low-luminosity flattened core galaxies also have disks; these may be transition forms from power-law galaxies to more luminous core galaxies, which lack disks. Several core galaxies have strong isophote twists interior to their break radii, although power-law galaxies have interior twists of similar physical significance when the photometric perturbations implied by the twists are evaluated. Central color gradients are typically consistent with the envelope gradients; core galaxies have somewhat weaker color gradients than power-law galaxies. Nuclei are found in 29% of the core galaxies and 60% of the power-law galaxies. Nuclei are typically bluer than the surrounding galaxy. While some nuclei are associated with active galactic nuclei (AGNs), just as many are not; conversely, not all galaxies known to have a low-level AGN exhibit detectable nuclei in the broadband filters. NGC 4073 and 4382 are found to have central minima in their intrinsic starlight distributions; NGC 4382 resembles the double nucleus of M31. In general, the peak brightness location is coincident with the photocenter of the core to a typical physical scale of <1 pc. Five galaxies, however, have centers significantly displaced from their surrounding cores; these may be unresolved asymmetric double nuclei. Finally, as noted by previous authors, central dust is visible in about half of the galaxies. The presence and strength of dust correlates with nuclear emission; thus, dust may outline gas that is falling into the central black hole. The prevalence of dust and its morphology suggest that dust clouds form, settle to the center, and disappear repeatedly on ~108 yr timescales. We discuss the hypothesis that cores are created by the decay of a massive black hole binary formed in a merger. Apart from their brightness profiles, there are no strong differences between core galaxies and power-law galaxies that demand this scenario; however, the rounder shapes of core, their lack of disks, and their reduced color gradients may be consistent with it.

The Centers of Early-Type Galaxies with HST. V. New WFPC2 Photometry

We present observations of 77 early-type galaxies imaged with the PC1 CCD of the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) WFPC2. Nuker-law parametric fits to the surface brightness profiles are used to classify the central structure into core or power-law forms. Core galaxies are typically rounder than power-law galaxies. Nearly all power-law galaxies with central ellipticities ? 0.3 have stellar disks, implying that disks are present in power-law galaxies with < 0.3 but are not visible because of unfavorable geometry. A few low-luminosity flattened core galaxies also have disks; these may be transition forms from power-law galaxies to more luminous core galaxies, which lack disks. Several core galaxies have strong isophote twists interior to their break radii, although power-law galaxies have interior twists of similar physical significance when the photometric perturbations implied by the twists are evaluated. Central color gradients are typically consistent with the envelope gradients; core galaxies have somewhat weaker color gradients than power-law galaxies. Nuclei are found in 29% of the core galaxies and 60% of the power-law galaxies. Nuclei are typically bluer than the surrounding galaxy. While some nuclei are associated with active galactic nuclei (AGNs), just as many are not; conversely, not all galaxies known to have a low-level AGN exhibit detectable nuclei in the broadband filters. NGC 4073 and 4382 are found to have central minima in their intrinsic starlight distributions; NGC 4382 resembles the double nucleus of M31. In general, the peak brightness location is coincident with the photocenter of the core to a typical physical scale of <1 pc. Five galaxies, however, have centers significantly displaced from their surrounding cores; these may be unresolved asymmetric double nuclei. Finally, as noted by previous authors, central dust is visible in about half of the galaxies. The presence and strength of dust correlates with nuclear emission; thus, dust may outline gas that is falling into the central black hole. The prevalence of dust and its morphology suggest that dust clouds form, settle to the center, and disappear repeatedly on ~108 yr timescales. We discuss the hypothesis that cores are created by the decay of a massive black hole binary formed in a merger. Apart from their brightness profiles, there are no strong differences between core galaxies and power-law galaxies that demand this scenario; however, the rounder shapes of core, their lack of disks, and their reduced color gradients may be consistent with it.

Axisymmetric, Three-Integral Models of Galaxies: A Massive Black Hole in NGC 3379

We fit axisymmetric three-integral dynamical models to NGC 3379 using the line-of-sight velocity distribution obtained from Hubble Space Telescope FOS spectra of the galaxy center and ground-based long-slit spectroscopy along four position angles, with the light distribution constrained by WFPC2 and ground-based images. We have fitted models with inclinations from 29° (intrinsic galaxy type E5) to 90° (intrinsic E1) and black hole masses from 0 to 109 M⊙. The best-fit black hole masses range from 6 × 107 to 2 × 108 M⊙, depending on inclination. The preferred inclination is 90° (edge-on); however, the constraints on allowed inclination are not very strong, owing to our assumption of constant M/LV. The velocity ellipsoid of the best model is not consistent with either isotropy or a two-integral distribution function. Along the major axis, the velocity ellipsoid becomes tangential at the innermost bin, radial in the midrange radii, and tangential again at the outermost bins. The rotation rises quickly at small radii owing to the presence of the black hole. For the acceptable models, the radial-to-tangential [(σ + σ)/2] dispersion in the midrange radii ranges over 1.1 < σr/σt < 1.7, with the smaller black holes requiring larger radial anisotropy. Compared with these three-integral models, two-integral isotropic models overestimate the black hole mass since they cannot provide adequate radial motion. However, the models presented in this paper still contain restrictive assumptions—namely, assumptions of constant M/LV and spheroidal symmetry—requiring yet more models to study black hole properties in complete generality.

The SBF Survey of Galaxy Distances. I. Sample Selection, Photometric Calibration, and the Hubble Constant

We describe a program of surface brightness fluctuation (SBF) measurements for determining galaxy distances. This paper presents the photometric calibration of our sample and of SBF in general. Basing our zero point on observations of Cepheid variable stars, we find that the absolute SBF magnitude in the Kron-Cousins I band correlates well with the mean (V - I)0 color of a galaxy according to for 1.0 < (V - I) < 1.3. This agrees well with theoretical estimates from stellar population models. Comparisons between SBF distances and a variety of other estimators, including Cepheid variable stars, the planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF), Tully-Fisher (TF), Dn-σ, SN II, and SN Ia, demonstrate that the calibration of SBF is universally valid and that SBF error estimates are accurate. The zero point given by Cepheids, PNLF, TF (both calibrated using Cepheids), and SN II is in units of megaparsecs; the zero point given by TF (referenced to a distant frame), Dn-σ, and SN Ia is in terms of a Hubble expansion velocity expressed in km s-1. Tying together these two zero points yields a Hubble constant of As part of this analysis, we present SBF distances to 12 nearby groups of galaxies where Cepheids, SN II, and SN Ia have been observed.

The centers of early-type galaxies with HST. II. Empirical models and structural parameters

We present a set of structural parameters for the central parts of 57 early-type galaxies observed with the Planetary Camera of the Hubble Space Telescope. These parameters are based on a new empirical law that successfully characterizes the centers of early type galaxies. This empirical law assumes that the surface brightness profile is a combination of two power laws with different slopes gamma and beta for the inner and outer regions. Conventional structural parameters such as core radius and central surface brightness are replaced by break radius r_b, where the transition between power-law slopes takes place, and surface brightness mu_b at that radius. An additional parameter alpha describes the sharpness of the break. The structural parameters are derived using a chi-squared minimization process applied to the mean surface brightness profiles. The resulting model profiles generally give very good agreement to the observed profiles out to the radius of 10 arcseconds imaged by the Planetary Camera. Exceptions include galaxies which depart from pure power-laws at large radius, those with strong nuclear components, and galaxies partly obscured by dust. The uncertainties in the derived parameters are estimated using Monte-Carlo simulations which test the stability of solutions in the face of photon noise and the effects of the deconvolution process. The covariance of the structural parameters is examined by computing contours of constant chi squared in multi-dimensional parameter space.

Observations of surface-brightness fluctuations in Virgo

VRI photometric observations of surface-brightness fluctuation in 13 Virgo Cluster galaxies, M32, and NGC 3379, obtained using an 800 x 800 CCD array on the 4-m telescope at KPNO during March 1989, are reported. The data-reduction techniques are described in detail, and the results are presented in tables and graphs. Particular attention is given to distance estimates derived from the I-band fluctuations: it is shown that NGC 4365 is behind the cluster, while NGC 4468 and NGC 4489 are in the foreground. The average distance to the cluster is found to be 17 + or - 1 Mpc, with H0 = 78 + or - 6 km/sec Mpc; the corresponding values from a direct isochrone calibration are 21 Mpc and 64 + or - 5 km/sec Mpc.