Edward A. Phelps

Maleimide Cross‐Linked Bioactive PEG Hydrogel Exhibits Improved Reaction Kinetics and Cross‐Linking for Cell Encapsulation and In Situ Delivery

Engineered polyethylene glycol-maleimide matrices for regenerative medicine exhibit improved reaction efficiency and wider range of Young’s moduli by utilizing maleimide cross-linking chemistry. This hydrogel chemistry is advantageous for cell delivery due to the mild reaction that occurs rapidly enough for in situ delivery, while easily lending itself to “plug-and-play” design variations such as incorporation of enzyme-cleavable cross-links and cell-adhesion peptides.

Bioartificial matrices for therapeutic vascularization.

Therapeutic vascularization remains a significant challenge in regenerative medicine applications. Whether the goal is to induce vascular growth in ischemic tissue or scale up tissue-engineered constructs, the ability to induce the growth of patent, stable vasculature is a critical obstacle. We engineered polyethylene glycol–based bioartificial hydrogel matrices presenting protease-degradable sites, cell-adhesion motifs, and growth factors to induce the growth of vasculature in vivo. Compared to injection of soluble VEGF, these matrices delivered sustained in vivo levels of VEGF over 2 weeks as the matrix degraded. When implanted subcutaneously in rats, degradable constructs containing VEGF and arginine-glycine-aspartic acid tripeptide induced a significant number of vessels to grow into the implant at 2 weeks with increasing vessel density at 4 weeks. The mechanism of enhanced vascularization is likely cell-demanded release of VEGF, as the hydrogels may degrade substantially within 2 weeks. In a mouse model of hind-limb ischemia, delivery of these matrices resulted in significantly increased rate of reperfusion. These results support the application of engineered bioartificial matrices to promote vascularization for directed regenerative therapies.

Effects of protein dose and delivery system on BMP-mediated bone regeneration.

Delivery of recombinant proteins is a proven therapeutic strategy to promote endogenous repair mechanisms and tissue regeneration. Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (rhBMP-2) has been used to promote spinal fusion and repair of challenging bone defects; however, the current clinically-used carrier, absorbable collagen sponge, requires high doses and has been associated with adverse complications. We evaluated the hypothesis that the relationship between protein dose and regenerative efficacy depends on delivery system. First, we determined the dose-response relationship for rhBMP-2 delivered to 8-mm rat bone defects in a hybrid nanofiber mesh/alginate delivery system at six doses ranging from 0 to 5 μg. Next, we directly compared the hybrid delivery system to the collagen sponge at 0.1 and 1.0 μg. Finally, we compared the in vivo protein release properties of the two delivery methods. In the hybrid delivery system, bone volume, connectivity and mechanical properties increased in a dose-dependent manner to rhBMP-2. Consistent bridging of the defect was observed for doses of 1.0 μg and greater. Compared to collagen sponge delivery at the same 1.0 μg dose, the hybrid system yielded greater connectivity by week 4 and 2.5-fold greater bone volume by week 12. These differences may be explained by the significantly greater protein retention in the hybrid system compared to collagen sponge. This study demonstrates a clear dose-dependent effect of rhBMP-2 delivered using a hybrid nanofiber mesh/alginate delivery system. Furthermore, the effective dose was found to vary with delivery system, demonstrating the importance of biomaterial carrier properties in the delivery of recombinant proteins.

Light-triggered in vivo activation of adhesive peptides regulates cell adhesion, inflammation and vascularization of biomaterials

Materials engineered to elicit targeted cellular responses in regenerative medicine must display bioligands with precise spatial and temporal control. Although materials with temporally regulated presentation of bioadhesive ligands using external triggers, such as light and electric fields, have been recently realized for cells in culture, the impact of in vivo temporal ligand presentation on cell-material responses is unknown. Here, we present a general strategy to temporally and spatially control the in vivo presentation of bioligands using cell adhesive peptides with a protecting group that can be easily removed via transdermal light exposure to render the peptide fully active. We demonstrate that non-invasive, transdermal time-regulated activation of cell-adhesive RGD peptide on implanted biomaterials regulates in vivo cell adhesion, inflammation, fibrous encapsulation, and vascularization of the material. This work shows that triggered in vivo presentation of bioligands can be harnessed to direct tissue reparative responses associated with implanted biomaterials.

Engineering more than a cell: Vascularization Strategies in Tissue Engineering

Host integration and performance of engineered tissues have been severely limited by the lack of robust strategies to generate patent vascularization and tissue perfusion. This review highlights a selection of exciting developments in vascularization approaches for tissue engineering research. Current strategies for vascularization in tissue engineering are related to growth factor signaling and delivery, cell transplantation, bioactive smart matrix materials, and directed fabrication. Application of these techniques to in vivo models has resulted in a number of robust host vascular responses, especially with synergistic and engineered bioactive systems. The future outlook of the field includes refinement and development of new technologies for vascularization and combining these techniques with functional repair models for metabolically active tissues and relevant disease states.

Update on therapeutic vascularization strategies

The ability to exploit angiogenesis and vascularization as a therapeutic strategy will be of enormous benefit to a wide range of medical and tissue-engineering applications. Angiogenic growth factor and cell-based therapies have thus far failed to produce a robust healing response in clinical trials for a variety of ischemic diseases, while engineered tissue substitutes are still size-limited by a lack of vascularization. The purpose of this review is to investigate current research advances in therapeutic vascularization strategies applied to ischemic disease states, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Recent advances are discussed that focus on better regulation of growth factor delivery and attempts to better mimic natural processes by delivering combinations of multiple growth factors, cells and bioactive materials in the right spatial and temporal setting. Some unconventional approaches and novel therapeutic targets that hold significant potential are also discussed.

Vasculogenic bio-synthetic hydrogel for enhancement of pancreatic islet engraftment and function in type 1 diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes (T1DM) affects one in every 400 children and adolescents in the US. Due to the limitations of exogenous insulin therapy and whole pancreas transplantation, pancreatic islet transplantation has emerged as a promising therapy for T1DM. However, this therapy is severely limited by donor islet availability and poor islet engraftment and function. We engineered an injectable bio-synthetic, polyethylene glycol-maleimide hydrogel to enhance vascularization and engraftment of transplanted pancreatic islets in a mouse model of T1DM. Controlled presentation of VEGF-A and cell-adhesive peptides within this engineered material significantly improved the vascularization and function of islets delivered to the small bowel mesentery, a metabolically relevant site for insulin release. Diabetic mice receiving islets transplanted in proteolytically degradable hydrogels incorporating VEGF-A exhibited complete reversal of diabetic hyperglycemia with a 40% reduction in the number of islets required. Furthermore, hydrogel-delivered islets significantly improved weight gain, regulation of a glucose challenge, and intra-islet vascularization and engraftment compared to the clinical standard of islet infusion through the hepatic portal vein. This study establishes a simple biomaterial strategy for islet transplantation to promote enhanced islet engraftment and function.

Cellular Encapsulation Enhances Cardiac Repair

Background Stem cells for cardiac repair have shown promise in preclinical trials, but lower than expected retention, viability, and efficacy. Encapsulation is one potential strategy to increase viable cell retention while facilitating paracrine effects. Methods and Results Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) were encapsulated in alginate and attached to the heart with a hydrogel patch in a rat myocardial infarction (MI) model. Cells were tracked using bioluminescence (BLI) and cardiac function measured by transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) and cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (CMR). Microvasculature was quantified using von Willebrand factor staining and scar measured by Massons Trichrome. Post‐MI ejection fraction by CMR was greatly improved in encapsulated hMSC‐treated animals (MI: 34±3%, MI+Gel: 35±3%, MI+Gel+hMSC: 39±2%, MI+Gel+encapsulated hMSC: 56±1%; n=4 per group; P<0.01). Data represent mean±SEM. By TTE, encapsulated hMSC‐treated animals had improved fractional shortening. Longitudinal BLI showed greatest hMSC retention when the cells were encapsulated (P<0.05). Scar size at 28 days was significantly reduced in encapsulated hMSC‐treated animals (MI: 12±1%, n=8; MI+Gel: 14±2%, n=7; MI+Gel+hMSC: 14±1%, n=7; MI+Gel+encapsulated hMSC: 7±1%, n=6; P<0.05). There was a large increase in microvascular density in the peri‐infarct area (MI: 121±10, n=7; MI+Gel: 153±26, n=5; MI+Gel+hMSC: 198±18, n=7; MI+Gel+encapsulated hMSC: 828±56 vessels/mm2, n=6; P<0.01). Conclusions Alginate encapsulation improved retention of hMSCs and facilitated paracrine effects such as increased peri‐infarct microvasculature and decreased scar. Encapsulation of MSCs improved cardiac function post‐MI and represents a new, translatable strategy for optimization of regenerative therapies for cardiovascular diseases.

Dual Delivery of Hepatocyte and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factors via a Protease-Degradable Hydrogel Improves Cardiac Function in Rats

Acute myocardial infarction (MI) caused by ischemia and reperfusion (IR) is the most common cause of cardiac dysfunction due to local cell death and a temporally regulated inflammatory response. Current therapeutics are limited by delivery vehicles that do not address spatial and temporal aspects of healing. The aim of this study was to engineer biotherapeutic delivery materials to harness endogenous cell repair to enhance myocardial repair and function. We have previously engineered poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based hydrogels to present cell adhesive motifs and deliver VEGF to promote vascularization in vivo. In the current study, bioactive hydrogels with a protease-degradable crosslinker were loaded with hepatocyte and vascular endothelial growth factors (HGF and VEGF, respectively) and delivered to the infarcted myocardium of rats. Release of both growth factors was accelerated in the presence of collagenase due to hydrogel degradation. When delivered to the border zones following ischemia-reperfusion injury, there was no acute effect on cardiac function as measured by echocardiography. Over time there was a significant increase in angiogenesis, stem cell recruitment, and a decrease in fibrosis in the dual growth factor delivery group that was significant compared with single growth factor therapy. This led to an improvement in chronic function as measured by both invasive hemodynamics and echocardiography. These data demonstrate that dual growth factor release of HGF and VEGF from a bioactive hydrogel has the capacity to significantly improve cardiac remodeling and function following IR injury.

Surface functionalization of polyketal microparticles with nitrilotriacetic acid-nickel complexes for efficient protein capture and delivery.

Microparticle drug delivery systems have been used for over 20 years to deliver a variety of drugs and therapeutics. However, effective microencapsulation of proteins has been limited by low encapsulation efficiencies, large required amounts of protein, and risk of protein denaturation. In this work, we have adapted a widely used immobilized metal affinity protein purification strategy to non-covalently attach proteins to the surface of microparticles. Polyketal microparticles were surface modified with nitrilotriacetic acid-nickel complexes which have a high affinity for sequential histidine tags on proteins. We demonstrate that this high affinity interaction can efficiently capture proteins from dilute solutions with little risk of protein denaturation. Proteins that bound to the Ni-NTA complex retain activity and can diffuse away from the microparticles to activate cells from a distance. In addition, this surface modification can also be used for microparticle targeting by tethering cell-specific ligands to the surface of the particles, using VE-Cadherin and endothelial cells as a model. In summary, we show that immobilized metal affinity strategies have the potential to improve targeting and protein delivery via degradable polymer microparticles.