Edward L. Winstead

NO and N2O emissions from savanna soils following the first simulated rains of the season

Data on the emissions of oxides of nitrogen from the soil during the early part of the wet season are reported for nutrient-rich and nutrient-poor sandy soils at Nylsvley, South Africa. The emissions of NOx and N2O following the first wetting event of the season are elevated relative to subsequent events. The observed high emission rates (76 ng N-NO m-2 s-1) are partially attributed to the sandiness of the soil, which permits NO to diffuse out of the soil rapidly. The pulse of high emissions following wetting is maintained for approximately 72 hours, thereafter continuing at around 20 ng NO m-2 s-1 while the soil remains moist. The initial pulse is suggested to be due to the accumulation of a substrate pool during the dry period, coupled with an inability of plants and microbes to use it effectively during the first few days after wetting. There were no significant differences in the peak or subsequent emission rates for either NO or N2O between two sites of differing nitrogen mineralisation potentials. N2O emissions averaged 8% of NOx emissions. The enhanced emissions of NOx which follow the first wetting after a prolonged dry period do not make a very large contribution to the annual gaseous N emission budget, but could be a significant contributor to the high tropospheric ozone levels observed over southern Africa in springtime.

Biogenic soil emissions of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from savannas in South Africa: The impact of wetting and burning

In this paper we report on the first measurements of microbial soil emissions of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrous oxide (N2O) from the savannas in South Africa. In addition to natural, unperturbed emission measurements, we investigated the impact of natural rainfall, artificial irrigation, and fire on these emissions. Wetting and burning resulted in a significant enhancement in the emissions of NO. Mean background NO emissions from the dry sites ranged from 0.4 to 6.2 ng N m−2 s−1 and from the wetted sites ranged from 4.7 to 34.0 ng N m−2 s−1. After burning, the mean NO emissions from the dry sites increased and ranged from 13.3 to 15.2 ng N m−2 s−1 and from the wetted sites increased, exceeding 60 ng N m−2 s−1. Measurements of biogenic emissions of N2O were attempted, but emissions were not detected throughout the measurement period, indicating emissions below the minimum delectability of the instrumentation (2 ng N m−2 s−1).

Source compositions of trace gases released during African savanna fires

Measurements of biomass burn-produced trace gases were made using low-altitude helicopter penetrations of smoke plumes above burning African savanna during the Southern African Fire-Atmosphere Research Initiative (SAFARI-92). Smoke from two large prescribed fires conducted in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, on September 18 and 24, 1992, was sampled at altitudes ranging from 20 to 100 m above ground level during flaming and smoldering phases of combustion. Carbon dioxide (CO2) normalized emission ratios (dX/dCO2 (vol/vol), where X denotes a trace gas) for carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), total nonmethane hydrocarbons (TNMHC), and nitrous oxide (N2O) were determined. The emission ratios were used in conjunction with fuel consumption estimates to calculate emission factors (grams of product per gram of fuel) for these gases. Emission factors for CO2, CO, CH4, and N2O of 1.61, 0.055, 0.003, and 1.6 × 10−4 g/g fuel, respectively, were determined. The fires advanced rapidly through the savanna (primarily grass) fuels with minimal amounts of smoldering combustion. The relatively low emission ratios determined for these fires indicated excellent combustion efficiency. About 93% of the carbon released into the atmosphere as a result of these fires was in the form of CO2.

Gaseous emissions from Canadian boreal forest fires

Abstract CO2-normalized emission ratios (ΔX/ΔCO2; V/V; where ΔX and ΔCO2 = the enhancement of trace gas and CO2, respectively, above background levels) for carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4), total nonmethane hydrocarbons (TNMHC), and nitrous oxide (N2O) were determined from smoke samples collected during low-altitude helicopter flights over two prescribed fires in northern Ontario, Canada. The emission ratios determined from these prescribed boreal forest fires are compared to emission ratios determined over two graminoid (grass) wetlands fires in central Florida and are found to be substantially higher (elevated levels of reduced gas production relative to CO2) during all stages of combustion. These results argue strongly for the need to characterize biomass burning emissions from the major global vegetation/ecosystems in order to couple combustion emissions to their vegetation/ecosystem type. Such a process should improve the quality of any assessments of biomass burning impacts on atmospheric chemistry and climate.

Mapping the Operation of the Miniature Combustion Aerosol Standard (Mini-CAST) Soot Generator

The Jing Ltd. miniature combustion aerosol standard (Mini-CAST) soot generator is a portable, commercially available burner that is widely used for laboratory measurements of soot processes. While many studies have used the Mini-CAST to generate soot with known size, concentration, and organic carbon fraction under a single or few conditions, there has been no systematic study of the burner operation over a wide range of operating conditions. Here, we present a comprehensive characterization of the microphysical, chemical, morphological, and hygroscopic properties of Mini-CAST soot over the full range of oxidation air and mixing N2 flow rates. Very fuel-rich and fuel-lean flame conditions are found to produce organic-dominated soot with mode diameters of 10–60 nm, and the highest particle number concentrations are produced under fuel-rich conditions. The lowest organic fraction and largest diameter soot (70–130 nm) occur under slightly fuel-lean conditions. Moving from fuel-rich to fuel-lean conditions also increases the O:C ratio of the soot coatings from ∼0.05 to ∼0.25, which causes a small fraction of the particles to act as cloud condensation nuclei near the Kelvin limit (κ ∼ 0–10−3). Comparison of these property ranges to those reported in the literature for aircraft and diesel engine soots indicates that the Mini-CAST soot is similar to real-world primary soot particles, which lends itself to a variety of process-based soot studies. The trends in soot properties uncovered here will guide selection of burner operating conditions to achieve optimum soot properties that are most relevant to such studies. Copyright 2014 American Association for Aerosol Research

Biofuel blending reduces particle emissions from aircraft engines at cruise conditions

Aviation-related aerosol emissions contribute to the formation of contrail cirrus clouds that can alter upper tropospheric radiation and water budgets, and therefore climate. The magnitude of air-traffic-related aerosol–cloud interactions and the ways in which these interactions might change in the future remain uncertain. Modelling studies of the present and future effects of aviation on climate require detailed information about the number of aerosol particles emitted per kilogram of fuel burned and the microphysical properties of those aerosols that are relevant for cloud formation. However, previous observational data at cruise altitudes are sparse for engines burning conventional fuels, and no data have previously been reported for biofuel use in-flight. Here we report observations from research aircraft that sampled the exhaust of engines onboard a NASA DC‐8 aircraft as they burned conventional Jet A fuel and a 50:50 (by volume) blend of Jet A fuel and a biofuel derived from Camelina oil. We show that, compared to using conventional fuels, biofuel blending reduces particle number and mass emissions immediately behind the aircraft by 50 to 70 per cent. Our observations quantify the impact of biofuel blending on aerosol emissions at cruise conditions and provide key microphysical parameters, which will be useful to assess the potential of biofuel use in aviation as a viable strategy to mitigate climate change.

Calibration and demonstration of a condensation nuclei counting system for airborne measurements of aircraft exhausted particles

Abstract A system of multiple continuous-flow condensation nuclei counters (CNC) was assembled, calibrated, and demonstrated on a NASA T-39 Sabreliner jet aircraft. The mission was to penetrate the exhaust plumes and/or contrails of other subsonic jet aircraft and determine the concentrations of submicrometer diameter aerosol particles. Mission criteria required rapid response measurements ( ∼ 1 s) at aircraft cruise altitudes (9–12 km). The CNC sampling system was optimized to operate at 160 Torr. Aerosol samples were acquired through an externally mounted probe. Installed downstream of the probe was a critical flow orifice that provided sample to the CNC system. The orifice not only controlled volumetric flow rate, but also dampened probe pressure/flow oscillations encountered in the turbulent aircraft-wake vortex environment. Laboratory calibrations with NaCl particles under representative conditions are reported that indicate small amounts of particle loss and a maximum measurement efficiency of ∼ 75% for particles with diameters ranging from ⩾ 0.01− ⩽ 0.18 μm Data from exhaust/contrail samplings of a NASA B757 and DC-8 at cruise altitude are discussed. Data include exhaust/contrail measurements made during periods in which the B757 port jet engine burned low-sulfur fuel while the starboard engine simultaneously burned specially prepared high-sulfur fuel. The data discussed highlight the CNC systems performance, and introduce new observations pertinent to the behavior of sulfur in aircraft exhaust aerosol chemistry.

Determination of the emissions from an aircraft auxiliary power unit (APU) during the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX)

The emissions from a Garrett-AiResearch (now Honeywell) Model GTCP85–98CK auxiliary power unit (APU) were determined as part of the National Aeronautics and Space Administrations (NASAs) Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) using both JP-8 and a coal-derived Fischer Tropsch fuel (FT-2). Measurements were conducted by multiple research organizations for sulfur dioxide (SO2), total hydrocarbons (THC), carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx), speciated gas-phase emissions, particulate matter (PM) mass and number, black carbon, and speciated PM. In addition, particle size distribution (PSD), number-based geometric mean particle diameter (GMD), and smoke number were also determined from the data collected. The results of the research showed PM mass emission indices (EIs) in the range of 20 to 700 mg/kg fuel and PM number EIs ranging from 0.5 × 1015 to 5 × 1015 particles/kg fuel depending on engine load and fuel type. In addition, significant reductions in both the SO2 and PM EIs were observed for the use of the FT fuel. These reductions were on the order of ∼90% for SO2 and particle mass EIs and ∼60% for the particle number EI, with similar decreases observed for black carbon. Also, the size of the particles generated by JP-8 combustion are noticeably larger than those emitted by the APU burning the FT fuel with the geometric mean diameters ranging from 20 to 50 nm depending on engine load and fuel type. Finally, both particle-bound sulfate and organics were reduced during FT-2 combustion. The PM sulfate was reduced by nearly 100% due to lack of sulfur in the fuel, with the PM organics reduced by a factor of ∼5 as compared with JP-8. Implications: The results of this research show that APUs can be, depending on the level of fuel usage, an important source of air pollutant emissions at major airports in urban areas. Substantial decreases in emissions can also be achieved through the use of Fischer Tropsch (FT) fuel. Based on these results, the use of FT fuel could be a viable future control strategy for both gas- and particle-phase air pollutants. Supplemental Data: Supplemental data is available for this article. Go to the publishers online edition of the Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association for information on the test participants, description of the APU, fuel composition, sampling probes and instrumentation, test matrix, benzene to formaldehyde ratios, and speciated emissions by particle size.

Gaseous and Particulate Emissions Results of the NASA Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX)

The Aircraft Alternative Fuels Emissions experiment (AAFEX) was conducted at National Aeronautic and Space Administration (NASA) Dryden Flight Research Center (DFRC) Aircraft Operations Facility (DAOF) in Palmdale, California, during January and February 2009. The purpose was to systematically investigate the effect of alternative fuels on both gas-phase and particle emissions from a CFM56-2C1 engine on NASA’s DC-8 aircraft parked on the ground as functions of engine power, fuel composition, and exhaust plume age. Emissions parameters were measured at 6 engine power settings, ranging from idle to maximum thrust, in samples collected at 1, 30, and 145 meters (m) downstream of the exhaust plane as the aircraft burned three pure fuels and two fuel blends. The fuels included JP-8, two fuels produced using the Fischer-Tropsch process and 50/50 blends by volume of the F-T fuels with JP-8. The 1 m sampling rakes contained multiple gas and particle inlet probes and could also be traversed in order to measure the spatial variation of emissions across the engine exhaust plane. The #2 inboard engine on the left side always burned JP-8 while the #3 inboard right side engine was fueled with the various fuels and fuel blends. In addition, emissions from the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) were also evaluated with both JP-8 and one pure F-T fuel. Both gaseous and particulate emissions are presented. Results show that the synthetic fuels reduced pollutant emissions while having relatively little effect on engine operation or performance.Copyright

Intercomparison of aerosol single‐scattering albedo derived from AERONET surface radiometers and LARGE in situ aircraft profiles during the 2011 DRAGON‐MD and DISCOVER‐AQ experiments

Single-scattering albedo (SSA) retrievals obtained with CIMEL Sun-sky radiometers from the Aerosol Robotic Network (AERONET) aerosol monitoring network were used to make comparisons with simultaneous in situ sampling from aircraft profiles carried out by the NASA Langley Aerosol Group Experiment (LARGE) team in the summer of 2011 during the coincident DRAGON-MD (Distributed Regional Aerosol Gridded Observational Network-Maryland) and DISCOVER-AQ (Deriving Information on Surface conditions from Column and Vertically Resolved Observations Relevant to Air Quality) experiments. The single-scattering albedos (interpolated to 550 nm) derived from AERONET measurements for aerosol optical depth (AOD) at 440 nm ≥ 0.4 (mean SSA: 0.979) were on average 0.011 lower than the values derived from the LARGE profile measurements (mean SSA: 0.99). The maximum difference observed was 0.023 with all the observed differences within the combined uncertainty for the stated SSA accuracy (0.03 for AERONET; 0.02 for LARGE). Single-scattering albedo averages were also analyzed for lower aerosol loading conditions (AOD ≥ 0.2) and a dependence on aerosol optical depth was noted with significantly lower single-scattering albedos observed for lower AOD in both AERONET and LARGE data sets. Various explanations for the SSA trend were explored based on other retrieval products including volume median radius and imaginary refractive index as well as column water vapor measurements. Additionally, these SSA trends with AOD were evaluated for one of the DRAGON-MD study sites, Goddard Space Flight Center, and two other Mid-Atlantic AERONET sites over the long-term record dating to 1999.