Eeske van Roekel

Bullying Among Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Prevalence and Perception

This study examined: (a) the prevalence of bullying and victimization among adolescents with ASD, (b) whether they correctly perceived bullying and victimization, and (c) whether Theory of Mind (ToM) and bullying involvement were related to this perception. Data were collected among 230 adolescents with ASD attending special education schools. We found prevalence rates of bullying and victimization between 6 and 46%, with teachers reporting significantly higher rates than peers. Furthermore, adolescents who scored high on teacher- and self-reported victimization were more likely to misinterpret non-bullying situations as bullying. The more often adolescents bullied, according to teachers and peers, and the less developed their ToM, the more they misinterpreted bullying situations as non-bullying. Implications for clinical practice are discussed.

Loneliness Across the Life Span

Most people have experienced loneliness and have been able to overcome it to reconnect with other people. In the current review, we provide a life-span perspective on one component of the evolutionary theory of loneliness—a component we refer to as the reaffiliation motive (RAM). The RAM represents the motivation to reconnect with others that is triggered by perceived social isolation. Loneliness is often a transient experience because the RAM leads to reconnection, but sometimes this motivation can fail, leading to prolonged loneliness. We review evidence of how aspects of the RAM change across development and how these aspects can fail for different reasons across the life span. We conclude with a discussion of age-appropriate interventions that may help to alleviate prolonged loneliness.

Loneliness in adolescence: Gene x environment interactions involving the serotonin transporter gene

BACKGROUND Loneliness is assumed to peak in early adolescence and to decrease throughout middle and late adolescence, but longitudinal confirmation of this tendency is lacking. Behavioral genetic studies with twin designs have found a significant genetic component for loneliness in children and adults, but no molecular genetic studies have been conducted to reveal the functional polymorphisms involved. METHODS Associations among the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), sex, parental support, and loneliness were examined in a longitudinal study spanning five annual waves (N = 306). RESULTS Using latent growth curve modeling (LGCM), loneliness was found to be highest in early adolescence and slowly declined throughout adolescence. The 5-HTTLPR genotype was related to the development of loneliness, in that short allele carriers remained stable in loneliness over time, whereas adolescents with the long-long genotype decreased in loneliness. Interactions were found between maternal support and 5-HTTLPR genotype, showing that adolescents who perceived little support from their mothers and carried a short allele were at increased risk for developing loneliness. CONCLUSIONS Our study is the first to chart adolescent loneliness longitudinally and to examine the genetic underpinnings of loneliness. Our results contribute to a further understanding of the environmental and genetic basis of loneliness. Replication of our results is needed in both population-based and clinical samples.

The Genetics of Loneliness: Linking Evolutionary Theory to Genome-Wide Genetics, Epigenetics, and Social Science

As a complex trait, loneliness is likely to be influenced by the interplay of numerous genetic and environmental factors. Studies in behavioral genetics indicate that loneliness has a sizable degree of heritability. Candidate-gene and gene-expression studies have pointed to several genes related to neurotransmitters and the immune system. The notion that these genes are related to loneliness is compatible with the basic tenets of the evolutionary theory of loneliness. Research on gene-environment interactions indicates that social-environmental factors (e.g., low social support) may have a more pronounced effect and lead to higher levels of loneliness if individuals carry the sensitive variant of these candidate genes. Currently, there is no extant research on loneliness based on genome-wide association studies, gene-environment-interaction studies, or studies in epigenetics. Such studies would allow researchers to identify networks of genes that contribute to loneliness. The contribution of genetics to loneliness research will become stronger when genome-wide genetics and epigenetics are integrated and used along with well-established methods in psychology to analyze the complex process of gene-environment interplay.

The dopamine D2 receptor gene, perceived parental support, and adolescent loneliness: longitudinal evidence for gene–environment interactions

BACKGROUND Loneliness is a common problem in adolescence. Earlier research focused on genes within the serotonin and oxytocin systems, but no studies have examined the role of dopamine-related genes in loneliness. In the present study, we focused on the dopamine D2 receptor gene (DRD2). METHODS Associations among the DRD2, sex, parental support, and loneliness were examined in a longitudinal study spanning five annual waves (N = 307). RESULTS Using Latent Growth Curve Modeling, DRD2 genotype was not directly related to loneliness. Interactions were found between parental support and DRD2 genotype, showing that adolescents with the A2A2 genotype who perceived little support from their parents had the highest baseline levels of loneliness. Adolescents with an A1 allele were not susceptible to the rewarding effect of parental support. CONCLUSIONS The present study is the first to examine the role of the DRD2 genotype in loneliness. Our results contribute to a further understanding of the environmental and genetic basis of loneliness in adolescence.

The Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) in Relation to State Levels of Loneliness in Adolescence: Evidence for Micro-Level Gene-Environment Interactions

Previous research has shown that the rs53576 variant of the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) is associated with trait levels of loneliness, but results are inconsistent. The aim of the present study is to examine micro-level effects of the OXTR rs53576 variant on state levels of loneliness in early adolescents. In addition, gene-environment interactions are examined between this OXTR variant and positive and negative perceptions of company. Data were collected in 278 adolescents (58% girls), by means of the Experience Sampling Method (ESM). Sampling periods consisted of six days with nine assessments per day. A relation was found between the OXTR rs53576 variant and state loneliness, in girls only. Girls carrying an A allele had higher levels of state loneliness than girls carrying the GG genotype. In addition, adolescents with an A allele were more affected by negative perceptions of company than GG carriers, on weekend days only. No significant gene-environment interactions were found with positive company. Adolescents carrying an A allele were more susceptible to negative environments during weekend days than GG carriers. Our findings emphasize the importance of operationalizing the phenotype and the environment accurately.

Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) in relation to loneliness in adolescence: interactions with sex, parental support, and DRD2 and 5-HTTLPR genotypes

Background Recent research has shown that loneliness, a common problem in adolescence, may have a genetic basis. The evidence, though, was limited mostly to serotonin-related and dopamine-related genes. In the present study, we focused on the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). Methods Associations were examined in a longitudinal study spanning five annual waves (N=307). The relations between OXTR and loneliness were examined, as well as interactions between OXTR and sex, parental support, 5-HTTLPR genotype, and DRD2 genotype. Results Using Latent Growth Curve Modeling, the OXTR genotype was not directly related to loneliness. An OXTR×sex interaction was found. Girls showed a steeper decline in loneliness when they had an A allele compared with girls who were homozygous for the G allele. In addition, a gene–gene interaction or epistasis was observed. Both boys and girls who had at least one A1 allele for the DRD2 gene and also had the GG genotype for the OXTR gene showed stable levels of loneliness over time. Conclusion The present study is the first to show that the GG genotype for the OXTR gene is linked to the development of loneliness in adolescence and that this association is moderated by participants’ sex and their genotype for a dopamine-related gene.

Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial to explore the effects of personalized lifestyle advices and tandem skydives on pleasure in anhedonic young adults

BackgroundAnhedonia is generally defined as the inability to feel pleasure in response to experiences that are usually enjoyable. Anhedonia is one of the two core symptoms of depression and is a major public health concern. Anhedonia has proven particularly difficult to counteract and predicts poor treatment response generally. It has often been hypothesized that anhedonia can be deterred by a healthy lifestyle. However, it is quite unlikely that a one-size-fits-all approach will be effective for everyone. In this study the effects of personalized lifestyle advice based on observed individual patterns of lifestyle behaviors and experienced pleasure will be examined. Further, we will explore whether a tandem skydive following the personalized lifestyle advice positively influences anhedonic young adults’ abilities to carry out the recommended lifestyle changes, and whether this ultimately improves their self-reported pleasure.MethodsOur study design is an exploratory intervention study, preceded by a cross-sectional survey as a screening instrument. For the survey, 2000 young adults (18–24 years old) will be selected from the general population. Based on survey outcomes, 72 individuals (36 males and 36 females) with persistent anhedonia (i.e., more than two months) and 60 individuals (30 males and 30 females) without anhedonia (non-anhedonic control group) will be selected for the intervention study. The non-anhedonic control group will fill out momentary assessments of pleasure and lifestyle behaviors three times a day, for one month. The anhedonic individuals will fill out momentary assessments for three consecutive months. After the first month, the anhedonic individuals will be randomly assigned to (1) no intervention, (2) lifestyle advice only, (3) lifestyle advice plus tandem skydive. The personalized lifestyle advice is based on patterns observed in the first month.DiscussionThe present study is the first to examine the effects of a personalized lifestyle advice and tandem skydive on pleasure in anhedonic young adults. Results of the present study may improve treatment for anhedonia, if the interventions are found to be effective.Trial registrationDutch Trial Register, NTR5498, registered September 22, 2015 (retrospectively registered).

Loneliness in the Daily Lives of Adolescents: An Experience Sampling Study Examining the Effects of Social Contexts

The main aim of the present study was to examine state levels of loneliness in adolescence. Both concurrent associations and temporal dynamics between social contexts and state levels of loneliness were examined. Data were collected from 286 adolescents (Mage = 14.19 years, 59% girls) by using the Experience Sampling Method. Results showed that adolescents had higher levels of state loneliness when they were alone, compared with being with company. When adolescents were with others, they were most lonely at school and with classmates. Adolescents showed a relief effect when they entered the company of friends after being alone, whereas a spillover effect of solitude was found when adolescents entered the company of family after being alone. Our findings show the dynamics of state loneliness, in that being with classmates increases state loneliness, whereas being with friends reduces loneliness after being alone.

Loneliness in the daily lives of young adults : Testing a socio-cognitive model

A socio–cognitive model of loneliness states that lonely people are characterized by two characteristics, hypersensitivity to social threat and hyposensitivity to social reward. However, these characteristics have not yet been examined in the daily lives of young adults. Therefore, the main aim of the present study was to examine these two characteristics in young adults and whether relationship status, living situation, and type of company moderated the relationship between sensitivity to threat and reward and feelings of loneliness. The Experience Sampling Method was used, and data were collected among 219 first–year college students (M age = 19.60, 91% female). Participants filled out questionnaires on their smartphone at five random time points per day, on 11 consecutive days. Multilevel analyses showed support for hypersensitivity to social threat, in that students high in loneliness were more negatively affected by negative perceptions of company. Results for hyposensitivity to social reward were in the opposite direction; students high in loneliness were more positively affected by positive perceptions of company than students low in loneliness. These relations were not moderated by relationship status or living situation. Our findings may indicate that loneliness serves as a motivational state that increases susceptibility to the environment in order to restore social relationships. Copyright