Eike Bierwirth

Dust mobilization and transport in the northern Sahara during SAMUM 2006 – a meteorological overview

The SAMUM field campaign in southern Morocco in May/June 2006 provides valuable data to study the emission, and the horizontal and vertical transports of mineral dust in the Northern Sahara. Radiosonde and lidar observations show differential advection of air masses with different characteristics during stable nighttime conditions and up to 5-km deep vertical mixing in the strongly convective boundary layer during the day. Lagrangian and synoptic analyses of selected dust periods point to a topographic channel from western Tunisia to central Algeria as a dust source region. Significant emission events are related to cold surges from the Mediterranean in association with eastward passing upper-level waves and lee cyclogeneses south of the Atlas Mountains. Other relevant events are local emissions under a distinct cut-off low over northwestern Africa and gust fronts associated with dry thunderstorms over the Malian and Algerian Sahara. The latter are badly represented in analyses from the European Centre for Medium–Range Weather Forecasts and in a regional dust model, most likely due to problems with moist convective dynamics and a lack of observations in this region. This aspect needs further study. The meteorological source identification is consistent with estimates of optical and mineralogical properties of dust samples.

Solar radiative effects of a Saharan dust plume observed during SAMUM assuming spheroidal model particles

The solar optical properties of Saharan mineral dust observed during the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) were explored based on measured size-number distributions and chemical composition. The size-resolved complex refractive index of the dust was derived with real parts of 1.51–1.55 and imaginary parts of 0.0008–0.006 at 550 nm wavelength. At this spectral range a single scattering albedo ωo and an asymmetry parameter g of about 0.8 were derived. These values were largely determined by the presence of coarse particles. Backscatter coefficients and lidar ratios calculated with Mie theory (spherical particles) were not found to be in agreement with independently measured lidar data. Obviously the measured Saharan mineral dust particles were of non-spherical shape. With the help of these lidar and sun photometer measurements the particle shape as well as the spherical equivalence were estimated. It turned out that volume equivalent oblate spheroids with an effective axis ratio of 1:1.6 matched these data best. This aspect ratio was also confirmed by independent single particle analyses using a scanning electron microscope. In order to perform the non-spherical computations, a database of single particle optical properties was assembled for oblate and prolate spheroidal particles. These data were also the basis for simulating the non-sphericity effects on the dust optical properties: ωo is influenced by up to a magnitude of only 1% and g is diminished by up to 4% assuming volume equivalent oblate spheroids with an axis ratio of 1:1.6 instead of spheres. Changes in the extinction optical depth are within 3.5%. Non-spherical particles affect the downwelling radiative transfer close to the bottom of the atmosphere, however, they significantly enhance the backscattering towards the top of the atmosphere: Compared to Mie theory the particle non-sphericity leads to forced cooling of the Earth-atmosphere system in the solar spectral range for both dust over ocean and desert.

Spectral surface albedo over Morocco and its impact on radiative forcing of Saharan dust

In May–June 2006, airborne and ground-based solar (0.3–2.2μm) and thermal infrared (4–42μm) radiation measurements have been performed in Morocco within the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM). Upwelling and downwelling solar irradiances have been measured using the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation Measurement System (SMART)-Albedometer. With these data, the areal spectral surface albedo for typical surface types in southeastern Morocco was derived from airborne measurements for the first time. The results are compared to the surface albedo retrieved from collocated satellite measurements, and partly considerable deviations are observed. Using measured surface and atmospheric properties, the spectral and broad-band dust radiative forcing at top-of-atmosphere (TOA) and at the surface has been estimated. The impact of the surface albedo on the solar radiative forcing of Saharan dust is quantified. In theSAMUM case of 19 May 2006, TOA solar radiative forcing varies by 12Wm−2 per 0.1 surface-albedo change. For the thermal infrared component, values of up to +22Wm−2 were derived. The net (solar plus thermal infrared) TOA radiative forcing varies between −19 and +24Wm−2 for a broad-band solar surface albedo of 0.0 and 0.32, respectively. Over the bright surface of southeastern Morocco, the Saharan dust always has a net warming effect.

Desert Dust Aerosol Air Mass Mapping in the Western Sahara, Using Particle Properties Derived from Space-Based Multi-Angle Imaging

Coincident observations made over the Moroccan desert during the Sahara mineral dust experiment (SAMUM) 2006 field campaign are used both to validate aerosol amount and type retrieved from multi-angle imaging spectroradiometer (MISR) observations, and to place the suborbital aerosol measurements into the satellite’s larger regional context. On three moderately dusty days during which coincident observations were made, MISR mid-visible aerosol optical thickness (AOT) agrees with field measurements point-by-point to within 0.05–0.1. This is about as well as can be expected given spatial sampling differences; the space-based observations capture AOT trends and variability over an extended region. The field data also validate MISR’s ability to distinguish and to map aerosol air masses, from the combination of retrieved constraints on particle size, shape and single-scattering albedo. For the three study days, the satellite observations (1) highlight regional gradients in the mix of dust and background spherical particles, (2) identify a dust plume most likely part of a density flow and (3) show an aerosol air mass containing a higher proportion of small, spherical particles than the surroundings, that appears to be aerosol pollution transported from several thousand kilometres away.

Vertical profiling of convective dust plumes in southern Morocco during SAMUM.

Lifting of dust particles by dust devils and convective plumes may significantly contribute to the global mineral dust budget. During the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM) in May–June 2006 vertical profiling of dusty plumes was performed for the first time. Polarization lidar observations taken at Ouarzazate (30.9◦N, 6.9◦W, 1133 m height above sea level) are analyzed. Two cases with typical and vigorous formation of convective plumes and statistical results of 5 d are discussed. The majority of observed convective plumes have diameters on order of 100–400 m. Most of the plumes (typically 50–95%) show top heights <1 km or 0.3DLH with the Saharan dust layer height DLH of typically 3–4 km. Height-to-diameter ratio is mostly 2–10. Maximum plume top height ranges from 1.1 to 2.9 km on the 5 d. 5–26 isolated plumes and clusters of plumes per hour were detected. A low dust optical depth (<0.3) favours plume evolution. Observed surface, 1 and 2–m air temperatures indicate that a difference of 17–20 K between surface and 2-m air temperature and of 0.9–1 K between the 1 and 2-m temperatures are required before convective plumes develop. Favourable horizontal wind speeds are 2–7 ms−1.

Airborne spectral radiation measurements to derive solar radiative forcing of Saharan dust mixed with biomass burning smoke particles

Airborne measurements of upward solar spectral irradiances were performed during the second Saharan Mineral dUst experiMent (SAMUM-2) campaign based on the Cape Verde Islands. Additionally, airborne high resolution lidar measurements of vertical profiles of particle extinction coefficients were collected in parallel to the radiation data. Aerosol layers of Saharan dust, partly mixed with biomass-burning smoke, were probed. With corresponding radiative transfer simulations the single scattering albedo and the asymmetry parameter of the aerosol particles were derived although with high uncertainty. The broad-band aerosol solar radiative forcing at the top of atmosphere was calculated and examined as a function of the aerosol types. However, due to uncertainties in both the measurements and the calculations the chemical composition cannot be identified. In addition, a mostly measurement-based method to derive the broad-band aerosol solar radiative forcing was used. This approach revealed clear differences of broad-band net irradiances as a function of the aerosol optical depth. The data were used to identify different aerosol types from different origins. Higher portions of biomass-burning smoke lead to larger broad-band net irradiances.

Retrieval of aerosol optical thickness for desert conditions using MERIS observations during the SAMUM campaign

Approximately 30% of the land surface is arid, having desert or semi-desert conditions. Aerosol originating from these regions plays a significant role in climate and atmospheric chemistry of the atmosphere. Retrieving aerosol properties from space-borne platforms above desert conditions, where the surface reflectance is usually very bright, is a challenging task. The proportion of the surface to top of atmosphere (TOA) reflectance can reach values over 90%, especially for wavelength above 500 nm. For these reasons detailed knowledge of aerosol and surface optical properties from these regions is required to separate atmosphere from intrinsically bright surfaces. An approach to retrieve aerosol properties over arid and semi-arid regions based on the Bremen Aerosol Retrieval (BAER) has been developed and validated within the Dust Aerosol Retrievals from Space-Born Instruments (DREAMS) Project, which is part of the Saharan Mineral Dust Experiment (SAMUM, 2006). Combining measurements of the backscattered radiation from the Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) instrument aboard Environmental Satellite (ENVISAT) and ground-based measurements in Morocco in radiation closure experiments yields the aerosol optical properties of mineral dust at selected locations.

Measurements of desert dust optical characteristics at Porte au Sahara during SAMUM

Main optical characteristics of desert dust, such as phase function and single scattering albedo, have been derived from combinations of sun-/sky-radiometer and satellite measurements during the SAMUM experiment (10 May–10 June 2006) at the site Porte au Sahara (30.237◦N, 5.607◦W) in South Morocco. Scattering phase functions have been retrieved using combined data of spectral aerosol optical thickness (AOT) and spectral sky brightness in the almucantar, considering non-spherical light scattering. Intercomparisons of modelled top-of-atmosphere (TOA) reflectance with satellite observations of the Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) and Scanning Imaging Absorption Spectrometer for Atmospheric Chartography () instrument have been used for the estimation of spectral single scattering albedo. For the radiative transfer calculations scattering phase functions and AOT from ground-based observations have been used. The spectral single scattering albedo ranges from 0.93 in the blue to 0.98 at 753 nm.

Combined retrieval of Arctic liquid water cloud and surface snow properties using airborne spectral solar remote sensing

The passive solar remote sensing of cloud properties over highly reflecting ground is challenging, mostly due to the low contrast between the cloud reflectivity and that of the underlying surfaces (sea ice and snow). Uncertainties in the retrieved cloud optical thickness τ and cloud droplet effective radius reff,C may arise from uncertainties in the assumed spectral surface albedo, which is mainly determined by the generally unknown effective snow grain size reff,S. Therefore, in a first step the effects of the assumed snow grain size are systematically quantified for the conventional bispectral retrieval technique of τ and reff,C for liquid water clouds. In general, the impact of uncertainties of reff,S is largest for small snow grain sizes. While the uncertainties of retrieved τ are independent of the cloud optical thickness and solar zenith angle, the bias of retrieved reff,C increases for optically thin clouds and high Sun. The largest deviations between the retrieved and true original values are found with 83 % for τ and 62 % for reff,C. In the second part of the paper a retrieval method is presented that simultaneously derives all three parameters (τ , reff,C, reff,S) and therefore accounts for changes in the snow grain size. Ratios of spectral cloud reflectivity measurements at the three wavelengths λ1 = 1040 nm (sensitive to reff,S), λ2 = 1650 nm (sensitive to τ ), and λ3 = 2100 nm (sensitive to reff,C) are combined in a trispectral retrieval algorithm. In a feasibility study, spectral cloud reflectivity measurements collected by the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation measurement sysTem (SMART) during the research campaign Vertical Distribution of Ice in Arctic Mixed-Phase Clouds (VERDI, April/May 2012) were used to test the retrieval procedure. Two cases of observations above the Canadian Beaufort Sea, one with dense snow-covered sea ice and another with a distinct snow-covered sea ice edge are analysed. The retrieved values of τ , reff,C, and reff,S show a continuous transition of cloud properties across snow-covered sea ice and open water and are consistent with estimates based on satellite data. It is shown that the uncertainties of the trispectral retrieval increase for high values of τ , and low reff,S but nevertheless allow the effective snow grain size in cloud-covered areas to be estimated.