Eileen M. Roscoe

CLASSROOM APPLICATION OF A TRIAL‐BASED FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

We evaluated a trial-based approach to conducting functional analyses in classroom settings. Ten students referred for problem behavior were exposed to a series of assessment trials, which were interspersed among classroom activities throughout the day. Results of these trial-based functional analyses were compared to those of more traditional functional analyses. Outcomes of both assessments showed correspondence in 6 of the 10 cases and partial correspondence in a 7th case. Results of the standard functional analysis suggested reasons for obtained differences in 2 cases of noncorrespondence, which were verified when portions of the trial-based functional analyses were modified and repeated. These results indicate that a trial-based functional analysis may be a viable assessment method when resources needed to conduct a standard functional analysis are unavailable. Implications for classroom-based assessment methodologies and future directions for research are discussed.

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS SCREENING FOR PROBLEM BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT

A common finding in previous research is that problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement continues to occur in the alone condition of a functional analysis (FA), whereas behavior maintained by social reinforcement typically is extinguished. Thus, the alone condition may represent an efficient screening procedure when maintenance by automatic reinforcement is suspected. We conducted a series of 5-min alone (or no-interaction) probes for 30 cases of problem behavior and compared initial predictions of maintenance or extinction to outcomes obtained in subsequent FAs. Results indicated that data from the screening procedure accurately predicted that problem behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement in 21 of 22 cases and by social reinforcement in 7 of 8 cases. Thus, results of the screening accurately predicted the function of problem behavior (social vs. automatic reinforcement) in 28 of 30 cases.

IDIOSYNCRATIC VARIABLES THAT AFFECT FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OUTCOMES: A REVIEW (2001–2010)

Although typical functional analyses often produce clear outcomes, some studies have reported ambiguous results that cannot be interpreted. Such undifferentiated outcomes may occur if test conditions do not include relevant antecedent or consequent events. Clinicians then may try to modify the functional analysis conditions to include those events. Hanley, Iwata, and McCord (2003) reviewed the functional analysis literature through 2000 and described idiosyncratic variables included in modified functional analyses. The objective of the present review was to present a quantitative analysis of idiosyncratic antecedents and consequences in modified functional analyses during the past decade (2001 to 2010). We discuss the range of stimulus parameters tested and the assessment strategies used for informing the modified analysis conditions.

A Procedure for Identifying Precursors to Problem Behavior.

We describe a procedure for differentiating among potential precursor responses for use in a functional analysis. Conditional probability analysis of descriptive assessment data identified three potential precursors. Results from the indirect assessment corresponded with those obtained from the descriptive assessment. The top-ranked response identified as a precursor according to the indirect assessment had the strongest relation according to the probability analysis. When contingencies were arranged for the precursor in a functional analysis, the same function was identified as for target behavior, supporting the utility of indirect and descriptive methods to identify precursor behavior empirically.

ASSESSING THE UTILITY OF A DEMAND ASSESSMENT FOR FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS

We evaluated the utility of an assessment for identifying tasks for the functional analysis demand condition with 4 individuals who had been diagnosed with autism. During the demand assessment, a therapist presented a variety of tasks, and observers measured problem behavior and compliance to identify demands associated with low levels of compliance or high levels of problem behavior (low-probability demands) and demands associated with high levels of compliance or low levels of problem behavior (high-probability demands). Results showed that clearer functional analysis outcomes were obtained for 3 of the 4 participants when low-probability rather than high-probability demands were used.

AN EVALUATION OF ANTECEDENT EXERCISE ON BEHAVIOR MAINTAINED BY AUTOMATIC REINFORCEMENT USING A THREE-COMPONENT MULTIPLE SCHEDULE

We evaluated antecedent exercise for treating the automatically reinforced problem behavior of 4 individuals with autism. We conducted preference assessments to identify leisure and exercise items that were associated with high levels of engagement and low levels of problem behavior. Next, we conducted three 3-component multiple-schedule sequences: an antecedent-exercise test sequence, a noncontingent leisure-item control sequence, and a social-interaction control sequence. Within each sequence, we used a 3-component multiple schedule to evaluate preintervention, intervention, and postintervention effects. Problem behavior decreased during the postintervention component relative to the preintervention component for 3 of the 4 participants during the exercise-item assessment; however, the effects could not be attributed solely to exercise for 1 of these participants.

A statewide survey assessing practitioners' use and perceived utility of functional assessment

The field of applied behavior analysis emphasizes the importance of conducting functional assessment before treatment development for problem behavior. There is, however, little information regarding the extent to which practitioners are using functional assessment in applied settings for individuals with developmental disabilities (DD). The purpose of the current study was to conduct a survey to assess the degree to which various types of functional assessment are implemented in agencies that serve individuals with DD in Massachusetts. Practitioners were asked to indicate their perception about and use of the various categories of functional assessment (e.g., indirect assessment, descriptive assessment, and functional analysis). From the 205 respondents who completed the survey, the most frequently used functional assessment was descriptive assessment. Results indicated that although the majority (67.8%) of practitioners believe functional analysis to be the most informative assessment tool for selecting behavioral treatment, only 34.6% of respondents indicated that they typically use functional analysis to inform the development of a behavior plan.

ASSESSMENT AND TREATMENT OF CHRONIC HAND MOUTHING

Hand mouthing (HM) is a chronic problem in many individuals with intellectual disabilities. Although the prevalence of mouthing has been estimated, data on the frequency, severity, or functions of the behavior were not included. In Study 1, we examined the prevalence and risk of HM. Results obtained from interviews showed that the prevalence of HM in two institutional samples (N = 802) was 12.7%, whereas direct observation yielded a lower estimate of prevalence (8%). Moreover, a large proportion of observed HM (39.1%) was self-injurious in nature. In Study 2, we used modified functional analyses (FAs) to examine the HM of 64 individuals. Results indicated that maintenance by automatic reinforcement accounted for 98.4% of the cases (all but one case). In Study 3, we implemented a progressive series of interventions for HM exhibited by 14 individuals. The following interventions were implemented in sequential order: (a) noncontingent reinforcement (NCR, effective with 6 subjects), (b) either NCR plus differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) plus response blocking (effective with 5 subjects) or NCR plus response blocking only (effective with 2 subjects), and (c) NCR plus brief manual restraint (effective with 1 subject).

FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT OF AGGRESSION MAINTAINED BY PREFERRED CONVERSATIONAL TOPICS

After an initial functional analysis of a participants aggression showed unclear outcomes, we conducted preference and reinforcer assessments to identify preferred forms of attention that may maintain problem behavior. Next, we conducted an extended functional analysis that included a modified attention condition. Results showed that the participants aggression was maintained by access to preferred conversational topics. A function-based intervention decreased aggression and increased an appropriate communicative response.

Noncontingent reinforcement: a further examination of schedule effects during treatment.

We conducted 2 studies to determine whether dense and thin NCR schedules exert different influences over behavior and whether these influences change as dense schedules are thinned. In Study 1, we observed that thin as well as dense NCR schedules effectively decreased problem behavior exhibited by 3 individuals. In Study 2, we compared the effects of 2 NCR schedules in multielement designs, one with and the other without an extinction (EXT) component, while both schedules were thinned. Problem behavior remained low as the NCR schedule with EXT was thinned, but either (a) did not decrease initially or (b) subsequently increased as the NCR schedule without EXT was thinned. These results suggest that dense schedules of NCR decrease behavior by altering its motivating operation but that extinction occurs as the NCR schedule is thinned. The benefits and limitations of using dense or thin NCR schedules are discussed.