Einar M. Skaalvik

Academic Self-Concept and Self-Efficacy: How Different Are They Really?

Academic motivation researchers sometimes struggle to decipher the distinctive characteristics of what appear to be highly analogous constructs. In this article, we discuss important similarities between self-concept and self-efficacy as well as some notable differences. Both constructs share many similarities such as centrality of perceived competence in construct definition; use of mastery experience, social comparison, and reflected appraisals as major information sources; and a domain-specific and multidimensional nature. Both predict motivation, emotion, and performance to varying degrees. However, there are also important differences. These differences include integration vs. separation of cognition and affect, heavily normative vs. goal-referenced evaluation of competence, aggregated vs. context-specific judgment, hierarchical vs. loosely hierarchical structure, past vs. future orientation, and relative temporal stability vs. malleability. We argue that self-efficacy acts as an active precursor of self-concept development and suggest that self-concept research separate out its multiple components and subprocesses and invest more effort toward making students less preoccupied with normative ability comparisons in school.

Self-Enhancing and Self-Defeating Ego Orientation: Relations with Task and Avoidance Orientation, Achievement, Self-Perceptions, and Anxiety.

Recent research in motivation has identified 2 main goal orientations: task orientation and ego orientation. Two studies of 6th- and 8th-grade Norwegian students tested the prediction that there are different dimensions of ego orientation (self-defeating and self-enhancing), that they may be separated from other goal orientations, and that they relate differently to academic achievement, self-concept, self-efficacy, self-esteem, anxiety, and intrinsic motivation. Results from both studies supported the predictions. The correlation between self-defeating and self-enhancing ego orientation was small, and these constructs had different relations to other variables in the study. Self-defeating ego orientation was associated with high anxiety and was negatively related to achievement and self-perceptions. Self-enhancing ego orientation was positively related to achievement, self-perceptions, and intrinsic motivation.

A Test of the Internal/External Frame of Reference Model at Different Levels of Math and Verbal Self-Perception

In this study, predictive relations were examined between math and verbal achievement and several different measures of motivation. The sample consisted of 348 sixth grade and 325 ninth grade Norwegian students. Motivation variables of self-concept, self-perceived aptitude, and self-perceived ability to learn within each domain were highly correlated and used as indicators to define math and verbal latent variables labeled general math and verbal self-perceptions. Subscales measuring self-perceived math and verbal skills were used to define another set of math and verbal latent variables labeled specific math and verbal self-perceptions. Both general and specific math and verbal self-perceptions were strongly related to corresponding achievement. Predictions from Marsh’s internal/external frame of reference model were confirmed for math and verbal general self-perceptions but not for specific self-perceptions. General self-perceptions strongly affected intrinsic motivation, self-perceived effort, and anxiety in the respective domains, whereas specific self-perceptions did not. The pattern of results was quite similar for the two grade levels.

Relations Among Achievement, Self-Concept, and Motivation in Mathematics and Language Arts: A Longitudinal Study

Abstract Relations among achievement, self-concept, and motivation in mathematics and language arts were examined in a longitudinal 2-wave, 3-variable panel study. The participants were 3 cohorts of Norwegian elementary and middle school students (N = 1,005). The 1st data collection took place in October and November 1996, when the students in the 3 cohorts attended 3rd, 6th, and 8th grades. The 2nd data collection took place 1 academic year later. LISREL 8 was used in the separate analyses of mathematics and language arts data; the data were analyzed for each cohort by means of 6 path analyses for latent variables. In all cohorts, the results were consistent with a skill-development model of the achievement-self-concept relation, that is, the view that achievement affects subsequent self-concept. No evidence was found that self-concept affects subsequent achievement (self-enhancement model). Moreover, in the 2 oldest cohorts, motivation was affected by previous achievement. However, there was no evidence...

Math, Verbal, and General Academic Self-Concept: The Internal/External Frame of Reference Model and Gender Differences in Self-Concept Structure.

In this study, predictions were tested from Marshs (1986) internal/external (I/E) frame of reference model (measuring cognitive dimensions of math and verbal self-concepts), and gender differences in the structure of academic self-concept were examined through path analyses of data from 231 Norwegian sixth-grade students (117 boys and 114 girls)

Teacher Self-Efficacy and Perceived Autonomy: Relations with Teacher Engagement, Job Satisfaction, and Emotional Exhaustion

When studied separately, research shows that both teacher self-efficacy and teacher autonomy are associated with adaptive motivational and emotional outcomes. This study tested whether teacher self-efficacy and teacher autonomy are independently associated with engagement, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion. 2,569 Norwegian teachers in elementary school and middle school (719 men, 1,850 women; M age=45.0 yr., SD=11.5) were administered the Norwegian Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale, the Teacher Autonomy Scale, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, the Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale, and the Maslach Burnout Inventory. The analysis revealed that both teacher autonomy and self-efficacy were independent predictors of engagement, job satisfaction, and emotional exhaustion. This study suggests that autonomy or decision latitude works positively but through different processes for teachers with high and low mastery expectations.

Gender differences in general academic self-esteem and in success expectations on defined academic problems

In this study, gender differences in different dimensions of academic self-concept were examined. General academic self-esteem and expectations of being able to master particular math and verbal problems were measured in 231 sixth-grade Norwegian students

Math and Verbal Achievement and Self-Concepts Testing the Internal/External Frame of Reference Model

Predictions from the Marsh Internal/External Frame of Reference Model were tested on two groups of sixth-grade Norwegian students. Data were analyzed through path analysis for latent variables using structural analysis. The predictions were supported for students who perceived their level of math and verbal achievement as substantially different (n = 309): Math and verbal self-concepts were not correlated and there were significant negative correlations between verbal achievement and math self-concept and between math achievement and verbal self-concept. However, the predictions were not supported for students who perceived their level of achievement in the two areas to be relatively equal (n = 138): Math and verbal self-concepts were strongly correlated and there were no significant negative correlations between achievement in one area and self-concept in the other area. The results support the theoretical basis of the I/E Model but indicate that it offers different predictions for different students.

Task Involvement and Ego Involvement: relations with academic achievement, academic self‐concept and self‐esteem

Abstract Relations between academic achievement, self‐perceptions, task involvement and defensive ego involvement (self‐presentation concerns) were explored among 349 sixth grade and 350 ninth grade Norwegian students. Task involvement was defined as general interest in working with school subjects, whereas defensive ego involvement was defined as students’ preoccupation with the impression they make on their classmates emphasizing the concern of not looking stupid. The results showed that task involvement and defensive ego involvement are independent but correlated motivational states. The concepts are negatively, but weakly correlated and are affected by different processes. Task involvement was affected directly by academic self‐concept, whereas defensive ego involvement was strongly associated with self‐esteem and was affected indirectly by academic self‐concept through self‐esteem.

Self-concept and self-efficacy: a test of the internal/external frame of reference model and predictions of subsequent motivation and achievement.

We examined how final grades in mathematics and verbal arts in the first year of high school (Grade 11) were predicted in a Norwegian population by sex, previous grades in middle school (Grade 10), self-concept, self-efficacy at a domain-specific level, and intrinsic motivation. Direct and indirect relations were examined by means of a series of regression analyses. Participants were 483 students from six Norwegian high schools. End of term grades in high school correlated positively with grades in middle school in both mathematics (r = .62) and verbal arts (r = .55). The relation between grades at the two points of time was to a large extent mediated through mathematics, verbal self-concept, and self-efficacy. Intrinsic motivation also correlated positively with subsequent achievement (r = .63 and .42 in mathematics and verbal arts, respectively). However, intrinsic motivation had little predictive value for subsequent grades over and above the prediction made by self-concept and self-efficacy. Thus, self-concept and self-efficacy were the strongest predictors of subsequent grades. Predictions from the Internal/External frame of reference model were supported for self-concept but not for domain-specific self-efficacy.