Elena Fernández

Time fluctuations of the phase modulation in a liquid crystal on silicon display: characterization and effects in diffractive optics

In this paper we provide evidence of the temporal fluctuations of the phase modulation property of a liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) display, and we analyze its effect when the device is used for displaying a diffractive optical element. We use a commercial twisted nematic LCoS display configured to produce a phase-only modulation, and we provide time resolved measurements of the diffraction efficiency that show rapid fluctuations of the phase modulation, in the millisecond order. We analyze how these fluctuations have to be considered in two typical methods for the characterization of the phase modulation: two beam interference and diffraction from a binary grating. We finally provide experimental results on the use of this device for displaying a computer generated hologram. A reduction of the modulation diffraction efficiency results from the phase modulation fluctuation.

Optimization of a thick polyvinyl alcohol-acrylamide photopolymer for data storage using a combination of angular and peristrophic holographic multiplexing

The capability of polyvinyl alcohol-acrylamide photopolymer materials to obtain angularly multiplexed holographic gratings has been demonstrated [Appl. Phys. B 76, 851 (2003)]. A combination of two multiplexing methods--peristrophic and angular multiplexing--is used to record 60 holograms. An exposure schedule method is used to optimize the capability of the photopolymerizable holographic material and obtain holograms with a higher, more uniform diffraction efficiency. In addition, because of this exposure schedule method, the entire dynamic range (M#) of the material will be exploited, obtaining values of approximately M# approximately 9 in layers approximately 800 microm thick.

New photopolymer holographic recording material with sustainable design.

Photopolymers that absorb in the visible spectrum are useful for different applications such as in the development of holographic memories, holographic optical elements or as holographic recording media. Photopolymers have an undesirable feature, the toxicity of their components and their low environmental compatibility, particularly if we analyse the life cycle of the devices made with these materials and their interaction with the environment. In this work we developed a new photopolymer with photochemical and holographic features similar to those of the standard material but with an improved design from the environmental point of view.

In dark analysis of PVA/AA materials at very low spatial frequencies: phase modulation evolution and diffusion estimation

Molecular diffusion effects have been widely studied inside photopolymers for holographic applications. Recently some works have focused on low spatial frequencies to evaluate in real time the monomer diffusion effects. Assuming a Fermi-Dirac function-based profile, we have fitted the diffracted intensities, reflected and transmitted (up to the 8th order), to obtain the phase and surface profile of the recorded gratings. We have studied the influence of diffusion in polyvinyl-alcohol/acrylamide for the range of spatial frequencies between 2 lines/mm and 6 lines/mm. We have demonstrated the influence of the spatial frequency on the magnitude and sign of the material volume variations. We also studied in dark the evolution of the grating shape. We show that it is possible to achieve diffractive gratings with diffraction efficiency in the first order near 35% if the in dark evolution is taken into account. Furthermore we present a method to calculate the monomer diffusivity in photopolymers. The differential equation is deduced and solved, and experimental average value is obtained (D=1.1 x 10(-8) cm(2)s(-1)).

Comparison of peristrophic multiplexing and a combination of angular and peristrophic holographic multiplexing in a thick PVA/acrylamide photopolymer for data storage

Two different types of multiplexing are used to store 90 holograms at the same location in a polyvinyl alcoholacrylamide photopolymer material. In the first, the 90 holograms are stored using only peristrophic multiplexing, whereas in the second a combination of angular and peristrophic multiplexing is used. The results (diffraction efficiency and dynamic range, M#) obtained with these two multiplexing techniques are compared. With the first, the dynamic range was M# = 13 and with the second M# = 8. An exposure schedule method is used to calculate the exposure time necessary to store the holograms with a more uniform, higher diffraction efficiency.

Influence of the incident angle in the performance of Liquid Crystal on Silicon displays

In this paper we experimentally analyze the performance of a twisted nematic liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS) display as a function of the angle of incidence of the incoming beam. These are reflective displays that can be configured to produce amplitude or phase modulation by properly aligning external polarization elements. But we demonstrate that the incident angle plays an important role in the selection of the polarization configuration. We performed a Mueller matrix polarimetric analysis of the display that demonstrates that the recently reported depolarization effect observed in this type of displays is also dependant on the incident angle.

3-dimensional characterization of thick grating formation in PVA/AA based photopolymer

Large thickness is required in holographic recording materials to be used as holographic memories. Photopolymers have proved to be a good alternative to construct holographic memories. Nevertheless, modeling the behavior of thick layers poses some problems due to high absorption of the dye, as discussed in previous papers. In this study, the gratings stored in photopolymers based on PVA/AA are analyzed considering the attenuation of light in depth. This is done by fitting the theoretical results, predicted by a model that considers this effect, to the experimental results obtained using diffraction gratings recorded in PVA/AA based photopolymer. In order to determine the diffraction efficiency at the first Bragg angle, an algorithm based on the rigorous coupled wave theory is used. Also, the characteristics of the gratings obtained using different recording intensities are analyzed, and the effective optical thickness is seen to increase as the intensity is increased.

Direct analysis of monomer diffusion times in polyvinyl/acrylamide materials

We propose an alternative, direct method to calculate monomer diffusion times in photopolymer materials. Very long period gratings are recorded in the photopolymer, and the real time variation in diffraction efficiency due to monomer diffusion is then analyzed. In photopolymers, monomer diffusion plays a fundamental role in hologram formation. However, since many interrelated parameters affect hologram formation, the usual techniques do not allow for an independent estimation of monomer diffusion times. The direct method proposed is applied to two polyvinyl based photopolymers with different molecular weights.

Mercury determination in urine samples by gold nanostructured screen-printed carbon electrodes after vortex-assisted ionic liquid dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction.

A novel approach is presented to determine mercury in urine samples, employing vortex-assisted ionic liquid dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and microvolume back-extraction to prepare samples, and screen-printed electrodes modified with gold nanoparticles for voltammetric analysis. Mercury was extracted directly from non-digested urine samples in a water-immiscible ionic liquid, being back-extracted into an acidic aqueous solution. Subsequently, it was determined using gold nanoparticle-modified screen-printed electrodes. Under optimized microextraction conditions, standard addition calibration was applied to urine samples containing 5, 10 and 15 μg L(-1) of mercury. Standard addition calibration curves using standards between 0 and 20 μg L(-1) gave a high level of linearity with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.990 to 0.999 (N = 5). The limit of detection was empirical and statistically evaluated, obtaining values that ranged from 0.5 to 1.5 μg L(-1), and from 1.1 to 1.3 μg L(-1), respectively, which are significantly lower than the threshold level established by the World Health Organization for normal mercury content in urine (i.e., 10-20 μg L(-1)). A certified reference material (REC-8848/Level II) was analyzed to assess method accuracy finding 87% and 3 μg L(-1) as the recovery (trueness) and standard deviation values, respectively. Finally, the method was used to analyze spiked urine samples, obtaining good agreement between spiked and found concentrations (recovery ranged from 97 to 100%).

Screen-printed electrode based electrochemical detector coupled with ionic liquid dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction and microvolume back-extraction for determination of mercury in water samples

A novel approach is presented, whereby gold nanostructured screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCnAuEs) are combined with in-situ ionic liquid formation dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction (in-situ IL-DLLME) and microvolume back-extraction for the determination of mercury in water samples. In-situ IL-DLLME is based on a simple metathesis reaction between a water-miscible IL and a salt to form a water-immiscible IL into sample solution. Mercury complex with ammonium pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate is extracted from sample solution into the water-immiscible IL formed in-situ. Then, an ultrasound-assisted procedure is employed to back-extract the mercury into 10 µL of a 4 M HCl aqueous solution, which is finally analyzed using SPCnAuEs. Sample preparation methodology was optimized using a multivariate optimization strategy. Under optimized conditions, a linear range between 0.5 and 10 µg L(-1) was obtained with a correlation coefficient of 0.997 for six calibration points. The limit of detection obtained was 0.2 µg L(-1), which is lower than the threshold value established by the Environmental Protection Agency and European Union (i.e., 2 µg L(-1) and 1 µg L(-1), respectively). The repeatability of the proposed method was evaluated at two different spiking levels (3 and 10 µg L(-1)) and a coefficient of variation of 13% was obtained in both cases. The performance of the proposed methodology was evaluated in real-world water samples including tap water, bottled water, river water and industrial wastewater. Relative recoveries between 95% and 108% were obtained.