Elisabeth Wells-Parker

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ROAD RAGE AND CRASH EXPERIENCE IN A REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE OF US DRIVERS

The phenomenon of road rage has been frequently discussed but infrequently examined. Using a representative sample of 1382 US adult drivers, who were interviewed in a 1998 telephone survey, exploratory analyses examined the relationship between self-reported measures of road rage, generally hazardous driving behaviors, and crash experience. Regarding specific road rage behaviors, most respondents reported having engaged in verbal expressions of annoyance; however only 2.45% reported ever having been involved in direct confrontation with another car or driver. After controlling for gender, age. driving frequency, annual miles driven and verbal expression, an angry/threatening driving subscale of road rage was significantly associated with hazardous driving behaviors that included frequency of driving over the legal blood alcohol limit, receipt of tickets in the past year. and habitually exceeding the speed limit as well as crash experience. However, the verbal/frustration expression subscale was not associated with crash experience or hazardous driving indicators, except for number of tickets, after controlling for other crash-related factors such as gender and age. Direct confrontation by deliberately hitting another car or leaving the car to argue with and/or injure another driver was rarely reported. Results suggest that angry/threatening driving is related to crash involvement; however, after controlling for exposure and angry/threatening and hazardous driving the relationship of milder expressions of frustration while driving and crash involvement was not significant.

Development of Control-of-Outcome Scales and Self-Efficacy Scales for Women in Four Life Roles

Scales to measure control-of-outcome expectancies and self-efficacy expectancies based on social comparisons were developed for adult females in the four life roles of occupation, parenting, marriage, and economic management. Internal consistency and construct validity of the scales were examined in two studies. Internal consistency estimates of six of the eight scales exceeded .70. A factor analysis within each role supported the distinction between control-of-outcome expectancies and self-efficacy expectancies. Construct validity was supported by finding the hypothesized relations between the developed scales and standard measures of self-esteem, depression,and locus of control. As hypothesized, the developed scales accounted for unique portions of the variance in role-specific coping orientation and role stress. Specifically, control-of-outcome expectancies predicted active or passive coping orientation in the personal roles of parenting and marriage. It was concluded that the developed scales might have utility for understanding coping and experienced stress in various life roles.

The effects of alcohol, expectancy, and sensation seeking on driving risk taking.

Using a cover story of the effects of alcohol on perceptual and motor abilities, two levels of alcohol consumed (moderate and none), two levels of alcohol expectancy (moderate and none), and two levels of sensation seeking (high and low) were combined to determine their effect on risk taking in a driving simulator. Ninety-six subjects were randomly assigned to eight conditions. Dependent variables were lane changes-cars passed and time at maximum speed. Results on lane-changes-cars passed indicated greater risk-taking in driving by high sensation seekers. Interaction of alcohol expectancy and sensation seeking indicated high sensation seekers took more risks when they believed they had consumed alcohol. Low sensation seekers became more cautious in driving when they believed they had consumed alcohol. Alcohol consumed did not produce a significant main effect or interaction.

Personality traits and behaviors of alcohol-impaired drivers: a comparison of first and multiple offenders.

Using an interview and questionnaire format, 358 driving under the influence of alcohol (DUI) first offenders and 141 DUI multiple offenders were compared on measures of personality traits, drinking behavior and problems, and driving behavior and history. In addition, official driving records for the two groups were compared. Results indicated that multiple offenders were significantly higher in hostility, sensation seeking, psychopathic deviance, mania, and depression than first offenders. Multiple offenders were significantly lower in emotional adjustment and assertiveness. Multiple offenders had significantly more nontraffic arrests, accidents, and traffic tickets than first offenders. They also consumed significantly more alcohol, evidenced more alcohol problems, and had higher BACs at the time of arrest than first offenders. Results are discussed in terms of general problem behavior and implications for intervention and treatment.

Alcohol, personality traits, and high risk driving: a comparison of young, drinking driver groups

Four types of drinking driver groups were compared with each other and also with two nondrinking driver groups on sensation seeking, social responsibility, and hostility. Groups were also compared on traffic violations, accidents, alcohol consumption, frequency of driving after drinking, frequency of driving impaired, and perception of driving risk taking after drinking. Drivers under the influence apprehended in conjunction with an accident or moving violation had significantly greater alcohol consumption, frequency of driving after drinking, frequency of driving impaired, traffic violations, accidents, and self rating of risk taking after drinking in comparison with other groups.

Self-efficacy and motivation for controlling drinking and drinking/driving: an investigation of changes across a driving under the influence (DUI) intervention program and of recidivism prediction.

Measures of (a) self-efficacy and (b) motivation to change (stage) for controlling drinking and drinking/driving were examined at the beginning and the end of a four-week intervention in a sample of 670 Driving Under the Influence (DUI) offenders in a court-mandated program. Hypotheses regarding stability of stage classifications over the course of intervention, and the relation between stage classification, stage scores, self-efficacy, and DUI recidivism were examined. Based on results of an earlier study it was expected that most offenders would be classified into the action stage at entry and that classifications would tend to remain stable from pretest to posttest. Action was the most frequent stage classification in both drinking and drinking/driving domains at both test periods, with precontemplation being the least frequent classification. When tracked over the four weeks, stage classifications for drinking and drinking/driving were stable for 74 to 89% of offenders in the two domains, respectively. As predicted, higher action and self-efficacy scores were related to lower recidivism, and action scores in the drinking/driving domain were the best early recidivism predictors among a predictor set that included traditional recidivism indicators. Drinking contemplators (i.e., those with the highest stage score on the contemplation scale) had higher recidivism rates than other drinking stage classifications. Implications for DUI intervention programs are discussed.

The emergency care setting for screening and intervention for alcohol use problems among injured and high-risk drivers: a review.

Each year thousands of people are treated in emergency departments and trauma centers for alcohol-related injuries, including those sustained in drinking driving crashes. Emergency departments and trauma centers provide an opportunity to screen for alcohol use problems and intervene with injured or high-risk drivers to reduce future alcohol-related traffic and injury risk. Recently physicians have expressed interest in exploring screening and intervention for alcohol use problems in these venues as a means of improving clinical care. This article reviews the literature that has examined screening and brief interventions in acute care settings to reduce future alcohol consumption and alcohol-related injury. The methodological and practical issues inherent in conducting these studies as well as in actual practice are discussed. The chaotic environment of acute care, the large numbers of patients required to be screened to obtain an adequate study sample, and high attrition rates make study in these settings difficult at best and are methodological problems that should be addressed in future research. A basic question that has not been adequately answered by research to date is whether reduction in alcohol consumption will translate to reduced alcohol-related harm, such as driving while impaired, or injurious or fatal crashes. Long-term studies that assess records-based outcomes in addition to alcohol-consumption levels are needed.

The effect of alcohol consumption on risk-taking while driving

Using a cover story of the effects of alcohol on perceptual and motor abilities, three levels of alcohol consumed (high, moderate, and none) were combined with three levels of alcohol expected (high, moderate, and none) to determine their effects on risk-taking while driving. Thirty-nine subjects were randomly assigned to six conditions. A driving simulation task was employed; dependent variables were cars passed and total time at high speed. Results indicated greatest risk-taking, measured by cars passed and time spent at high speed, by subjects who believed they had consumed a moderate amount of alcohol. Actual amount of alcohol consumed produced no significant differences.

Stages of change and self-efficacy for controlling drinking and driving: a psychometric analysis

Indicators of self-efficacy and motivation to change (stage of change) with regard to drinking and to drinking and driving were examined in a sample of Driving Under the Influence (DUI) offenders in a court-mandated intervention program. Self-administered questionnaires that contained pertinent measures were completed by 210 consenting offenders (34 of whom were female) during the intervention program. A factor analysis of efficacy and stages of change items showed distinct factors for the respective constructs; however, drinking and drinking-and-driving items of the same type (e.g., efficacy or stages of change) tended to codefine common factors, and the factor pattern suggested that motivations and efficacy for changing drinking behavior are critical for avoiding the drinking-and-driving sequence. Most participants were classified into the action stage in both drinking and drinking-and-driving domains. In regression analysis, contemplation of action and self-efficacy measures pertaining to drinking and driving predicted prior crashes and arrests; however, after accounting for recent alcohol problems, action items pertaining to drinking and driving were the best predictors of recent drinking-and-driving incidents.

Negative affect and drinking drivers: a review and conceptual model linking dissonance, efficacy and negative affect to risk and motivation for change.

This review summarizes evidence on negative affect among drinking drivers. Elevations in negative affect, including depressed mood, anxiety and hostility, have long been noted in convicted drinking drivers, and recent evidence suggests an association between negative affect and driving after drinking in the general population. Previous efforts to understand the significance of this negative affective state have ranged from suggestions that it may play a causal role in drinking driving to suggestions that it may interfere with response to treatment and remedial interventions. Recent studies have uncovered an important paradox involving negative affect among convicted drinking drivers (hereafter DUI offenders). DUI offenders with high levels of negative affect recidivated more frequently following a DUI program than did those reporting no or minimal negative affect. However, when a brief supportive motivational intervention was added to the program, offenders with high negative affect levels showed lower recidivism rates than did those with no or minimal negative affect. The review includes studies from the general literature on alcohol treatment in which the same negative affect paradox was reported. In an attempt to understand this paradox, we present a conceptual model involving well-established psychological processes, with a focus on salient discrepancy, the crucial component of cognitive dissonance. In this model, negative affect plays an important role in motivating both continued high-risk drinking as well as therapeutic change. This model suggests that links between motivational states and negative affective processes may be more complex than previously thought. Implications for intervention with DUI offenders are discussed.