Elizabeth L. Hay

Risk and Resilience Factors in Coping With Daily Stress in Adulthood: The Role of Age, Self-Concept Incoherence, and Personal Control

This study observed young, middle-aged, and older adults (N = 239; Mage = 49.6 years; range = 18-89 years) for 30 consecutive days to examine the association between daily stress and negative affect, taking into account potential risk (i.e., self-concept incoherence) and resilience (i.e., age, perceived personal control) factors. Results indicated that younger individuals and individuals with a more incoherent self-concept showed higher average negative affect across the study. As well, individuals reported higher negative affect on days that they experienced more stress than usual and on days that they reported less control than usual. These main effects were qualified by significant interactions. In particular, the association between daily stress and negative affect was stronger on days on which adults reported low control compared with days on which they reported high control (i.e., perceptions of control buffered stress). Reactivity to daily stress did not differ for individuals of different ages or for individuals with different levels of self-concept incoherence. Although all individuals reported higher negative affect on days on which they reported less control than usual, this association was more pronounced among younger adults. The current study helps to elucidate the role of risk and resilience factors when adults are faced with daily stress.

The Ratio between Positive and Negative Affect and Flourishing Mental Health across Adulthood

Using data from a 30-day diary study with 239 adults (81 young, 81 middle-aged, and 77 older adults), this study examined whether a specific ratio between positive and negative affect distinguished individuals with different mental health status and especially flourishing from non-flourishing individuals. In addition, the study addressed whether there were age differences in the positivity ratio when daily affect data were used, and whether the proposed critical positivity ratio of 2.9 discriminated equally well between individuals with different mental health status across the adult lifespan. Findings showed that the ratio of positive to negative affect differed across adulthood such that age was associated with an increasing preponderance of positive to negative affect. The positivity ratio was also associated with mental health status in the hypothesized direction; higher positivity ratios were associated with better mental health. Finally, although the data supported the notion of a positivity ratio of 2.9 as a ‘critical value’ in young adulthood, this value did not equally well discriminate the mental health status of middle-aged and older adults.

Searching under the streetlight?: Age biases in the personal and family relationships literature

Two studies addressing age biases in research on family and social relationships are presented. Study 1 involved a content analysis of nearly 1,000 empirical studies published in six major journals from 1994 to 1999. Studies in these journals generally were limited to samples of adults under the age of 45, though nearly one third of the studies failed to include information about the ages of adult participants. Most research focused on marital ties, romantic partnerships, or relationships between parents and young children. Study 2 (N = 186) assessed beliefs about the importance of various relationships to adults of different ages. Researchers who study relationships (n = 71), adults with advanced degrees in other fields (n = 57), and less-educated adults (n = 58) rated the importance of various social ties to themselves and to adults of different ages. In general, participants agreed that adults of different ages value different social ties. Less-educated individuals rated many social ties as more important than did researchers who study relationships, however. Age biases in sampling and the types of relationships that receive research attention are discussed.

Change in Coping and Defense Mechanisms across Adulthood: Longitudinal Findings in a European-American Sample

This study examined longitudinal changes in coping and defense mechanisms in an age- and gender-stratified sample of 392 European American adults. Nonlinear age-related changes were found for the coping mechanisms of sublimation and suppression and the defense mechanisms of intellectualization, doubt, displacement, and regression. The change trajectories for sublimation and suppression showed that their use increased from adolescence to late middle age and early old age and remained mostly stable into late old age. The change trajectory for intellectualization showed that the use of this defense mechanism increased from adolescence to middle age, remained stable until late midlife, and started to decline thereafter. The defense mechanisms of doubt, displacement, and regression showed decreases from adolescence until early old age, with increases occurring again after the age of 65. Linear age-related decreases were found for the coping mechanism of ego regression and the defense mechanisms of isolation and rationalization. Gender and socioeconomic status were associated with the mean levels of several coping and defense mechanisms but did not moderate age-related changes. Increases in ego level were associated with increased use of the defense mechanism intellectualization and decreased use of the defense mechanisms of doubt and displacement. Overall, these findings in a European American sample suggest that most individuals showed development in the direction of more adaptive and less maladaptive coping and defense strategies from adolescence until late middle age or early old age. However, in late old age this development was reversed, presenting potential challenges to the adaptive capacity of older adults.

SELF-CONCEPT DIFFERENTIATION AND SELF-CONCEPT CLARITY ACROSS ADULTHOOD: ASSOCIATIONS WITH AGE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING

This study focused on the identification of conceptually meaningful groups of individuals based on their joint self-concept differentiation (SCD) and self-concept clarity (SCC) scores. Notably, we examined whether membership in different SCD-SCC groups differed by age and also was associated with differences in psychological well-being (PWB). Cluster analysis revealed five distinct SCD-SCC groups: a self-assured, unencumbered, fragmented-only, confused-only, and fragmented and confused group. Individuals in the self-assured group had the highest mean scores for positive PWB and the lowest mean scores for negative PWB, whereas individuals in the fragmented and confused group showed the inverse pattern. Findings showed that it was psychologically advantageous to belong to the self-assured group at all ages. As hypothesized, older adults were more likely than young adults to be in the self-assured cluster, whereas young adults were more likely to be in the fragmented and confused cluster. Thus, consistent with extant theorizing, age was positively associated with psychologically adaptive self-concept profiles.

6. INTERGENERATIONAL AMBIVALENCE IN THE CONTEXT OF THE LARGER SOCIAL NETWORK

Parents and offspring experience strong feelings for one another throughout the life span. Indeed, as other chapters in this volume suggest, this relationship is fraught with complexity. Yet, it is not clear whether ambivalence is specific to the parent-child relationship or whether it is characteristic of close relationships in general. Further, we do not know whether parents and children experience ambivalence in their tie throughout life or only at specific periods of life. In this chapter, we address two questions about ambivalence in the parent-child relationship: (1) Do individuals experience more ambivalence in their relationships with parents and offspring than they do in other social relationships? (2) Do individuals experience varying degrees of ambivalence in this relationship at different points in the life span?

Parents’ and Offspring's Perceptions of Change and Continuity when Parents Experience the Transition to Old Age

Abstract Most parents and children are fortunate to share several decades of the life course when both parties are healthy adults. When parents reach the transition to old age, however, they typically experience health declines and both parties must adjust to changes in the relationship. The sample included older adults (aged 70+) suffering vision loss, hearing loss, or seeking general health care and a grown son or daughter (N=121 dyads, 242 individuals). Aging parents also suffered common health problems (e.g., hypertension, arthritis). Parents and offspring provided open-ended descriptions of changes and continuities in their relationship. Although prior studies link parental health declines to intergenerational ambivalence, most parents and offspring in this study mentioned positive changes in the relationship in recent years, regardless of parental health. Multilevel models revealed that perceptions of changes in parental health or receipt of support were associated with objective indicators of parental health. Findings suggest offsprings views of the relationship converge with parents’ when parents reach the transition to old age and show physical signs of aging.

Personal Risk and Resilience Factors in the Context of Daily Stress

This chapter focuses on the role that personal risk and resilience factors play as adults of all ages cope with the stressors encountered in everyday life. Theorists have suggested that researchers should focus on the effects of daily stress and coping rather than focusing exclusively on major life events and chronic stress and have proposed that understanding how adults cope with daily stress is a key aspect of understanding long-term well-being and adaptation in adulthood. After presenting a conceptual model outlining the major components of the daily stress process, the chapter reviews the existing empirical literature on personal risk and resilience factors in the context of daily stress. This research clearly suggests that there is no universal generalization that can be made regarding whether chronological age, in and of itself, confers greater vulnerability or resilience onto adults. Instead, we argue that researchers should ask

Personality-Related Risk and Resilience Factors in Coping With Daily Stress Among Adult Cancer Patients

This study examined personality-related risk (i.e., self-concept incoherence) and resilience factors (i.e., psychological well-being at baseline and daily beliefs of control) in adult cancer patients coping with daily stress. Reactivity to daily stress was assessed in terms of negative daily mood. Multilevel analyses yielded significant main effects of daily stress, psychological well-being, and daily control. These main effects were qualified by significant two- and three-way interactions. The Stress × Control interaction indicated that individuals reported more negative mood in response to daily stress on low-control days. Similarly, the Self-Concept Incoherence × Control interaction suggested that individuals with a more coherent self-concept benefited more from feeling in control in terms of experiencing less increase in negative mood compared to individuals with a more incoherent self-concept. Significant three-way interactions also indicated that the associations between stress, control and negative daily mood differed by level of self-concept incoherence and level of psychological well-being at the beginning of the study.