Kelly E. Cichy

Associations among daily stressors and salivary cortisol: Findings from the National Study of Daily Experiences

While much research has focused on linking stressful experiences to emotional and biological reactions in laboratory settings, there is an emerging interest in extending these examinations to field studies of daily life. The current study examined day-to-day associations among naturally occurring daily stressors and salivary cortisol in a national sample of adults from the second wave of the National Study of Daily Experiences (NSDE). A sample of 1694 adults (age=57, range=33-84; 44% male) completed telephone interviews detailing their stressors and emotions on eight consecutive evenings. Participants also provided saliva samples upon waking, 30min post-waking, before lunch and before bed, on four consecutive interview days resulting in 5995 days of interview/cortisol data. Analyses revealed three main findings. First, cortisol AUC was significantly higher on stressor days compared to stressor-free days, particularly for arguments and overloads at home, suggesting that daily stressors are associated with increased cortisol output, but that not all daily stressors have such an influence. Second, individuals reporting a greater frequency of stressor days also exhibited a steeper diurnal cortisol slope. Finally, daily stressor-cortisol associations were unaltered after adjustment for daily negative affect and physical symptoms. Our discussion focuses on the influence of naturally occurring daily stressors on daily cortisol and the role of daily diary approaches for studying healthy cortisol responses to psychosocial stressors outside of traditional laboratory settings.

Time Use and Well-Being in Older Widows: Adaptation and Resilience

Research on widowhood mostly emphasizes negative outcomes, but some studies suggest widows are resilient. This study evaluated the in-depth daily experiences of older widows compared to married women. Participants included 75 widows and 125 married women from the National Study of Daily Experiences II, who completed daily diaries over 8 days. For long-term widows, there were no differences compared to married women in daily and general well-being, and a few differences in time use. Results add to the literature by using daily diary data to illustrate the general resilience of older women many years after the death of a spouse.

Parents’ and Offspring's Perceptions of Change and Continuity when Parents Experience the Transition to Old Age

Abstract Most parents and children are fortunate to share several decades of the life course when both parties are healthy adults. When parents reach the transition to old age, however, they typically experience health declines and both parties must adjust to changes in the relationship. The sample included older adults (aged 70+) suffering vision loss, hearing loss, or seeking general health care and a grown son or daughter (N=121 dyads, 242 individuals). Aging parents also suffered common health problems (e.g., hypertension, arthritis). Parents and offspring provided open-ended descriptions of changes and continuities in their relationship. Although prior studies link parental health declines to intergenerational ambivalence, most parents and offspring in this study mentioned positive changes in the relationship in recent years, regardless of parental health. Multilevel models revealed that perceptions of changes in parental health or receipt of support were associated with objective indicators of parental health. Findings suggest offsprings views of the relationship converge with parents’ when parents reach the transition to old age and show physical signs of aging.

Daily Emotional and Physical Reactivity to Stressors Among Widowed and Married Older Adults

OBJECTIVES Widowhood may result in declines in health and potentially stressful changes to daily routines. However, little research has examined how daily stressors contribute to physical and emotional well-being in widowhood. The objectives of the current study were to examine daily stressor exposure and reactivity in widowed versus married older adults. METHOD Participants included all 100 widowed and 342 married adults aged 65 and older from the National Study of Daily Experiences, a daily diary study from the second wave of the Midlife in the United States. Daily stressors were measured using the Daily Inventory of Stressful Events; multilevel modeling assessed daily reactivity to stressors using daily negative affect (emotional reactivity) and daily physical symptoms (physical reactivity) as outcomes. RESULTS Married participants reported more stressors in general, and specifically more interpersonal stressors (e.g., arguments). Both married and widowed participants were reactive to daily stressors. Married participants were physically and emotionally reactive to interpersonal stressors. Widowed participants were more physically reactive to home-related stressors. DISCUSSION Attention to the types of daily stressors that widowed older adults experience in daily life and the potential physical effects of daily stressors during widowhood may help to alleviate some of the physical distress that widowed older adults may experience.

A Double-Edged Sword Race, Daily Family Support Exchanges, and Daily Well-Being

This study contributes to research on race and family ties by exploring racial differences in the direct effects of family support exchanges on daily well-being and the extent to which family support buffers/exacerbates stressor reactivity. African Americans and European Americans aged 34 to 84 years (N = 1,931) from the National Study of Daily Experiences reported on family support exchanges (i.e., support received/support provided), daily stressors, and negative affect during 8 days of telephone interviews. On a daily basis, receiving family support was not associated with well-being, whereas providing family support was associated with compromised well-being among African Americans. As expected, receiving family support buffered reactivity to daily tensions for both races, whereas providing emotional support to family exacerbated African Americans’ reactivity to daily tensions. Together, our findings suggest that even after considering the benefits of receiving family support, providing family support takes an emotional toll on African Americans.

Conflict Engagement and Conflict Disengagement During Interactions Between Adults and Their Parents

OBJECTIVES This study examined generational, ethnic, and gender differences in conflict behaviors during interactions between adults and their parents. We considered associations between observed conflict engagement and conflict disengagement behaviors and participant-rated relationship quality. METHOD Participants included 155 African American and European American women and men (aged 22-49 years), their mothers and their fathers (N = 465). Adult children were videotaped separately with their mother and their father discussing relationship problems. Independent raters coded the conversations for conflict engagement (e.g., pressuring for change) and disengagement (e.g., withdrawing) behaviors. RESULTS In African American families, parents displayed more conflict engagement and adult children displayed more conflict disengagement, whereas European American parents and adult children did not differ in their conflict behaviors. Mothers, fathers, and adult children reported poorer relationship quality when they engaged in more conflict engagement behaviors. Adult children also reported poorer quality relationships when their mothers displayed more conflict engagement behaviors. Mothers reported poorer quality relationships when their adult children engaged in more conflict disengagement. DISCUSSION Findings suggest that even as adults, parents and children in poorer quality relationships may engage in potentially ineffective behaviors to resolve conflicts.

Age differences in types of interpersonal tensions.

This study examined age differences in topics that generate interpersonal tensions as well as relationship level characteristics that may account for variability in the content of interpersonal tensions. Participants aged 13 to 99 years (N = 184) diagramed their close and problematic social networks, and then provided open-ended descriptions of recent tensions with up to 6 social partners. Multilevel models were conducted to examine variability in 5 types of tensions (i.e., financial issues, daily activities, scheduling, job/school, and self). Older adults were less likely than younger ages to describe tensions over job/school and daily activities. Job/school tensions were more likely to occur with acquaintances and negative network members. Tensions over scheduling were more likely to occur with positive and ambivalent network members, and tensions over daily activities were associated with less emotional distress. Results suggest relationship characteristics contribute to the content of tensions.

Closing the Generation Gap: Using Discussion Groups to Benefit Older Adults and College Students

Designing class activities that enable students to interact with older adults in meaningful ways is one of the most powerful tools of undergraduate gerontological education. This chapter describes the benefits of participating in intergenerational discussion groups for undergraduate students and older adults. Throughout the semester, older adults attended four to five Introduction to Gerontology class sessions, where together with the undergraduate students they participated in thought provoking dialogs about current gerontological issues. The goal was for older adults and college students alike to gain knowledge, improve problem solving skills, and question their own belief systems. After participating in the discussion groups, the undergraduate students indicated that they had an increased understanding of older adults. Further, older adults’ self-report questionnaires and focus group participation indicated that attending the groups helped them feel mentally sharp and more knowledgeable about aging. Benefits for both generations will be discussed.