Elizabeth V. Menshikova

Deficiency of electron transport chain in human skeletal muscle mitochondria in type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity

Insulin resistance in skeletal muscle in obesity and T2DM is associated with reduced muscle oxidative capacity, reduced expression in nuclear genes responsible for oxidative metabolism, and reduced activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain. The presented study was undertaken to analyze mitochondrial content and mitochondrial enzyme profile in skeletal muscle of sedentary lean individuals and to compare that with our previous data on obese or obese T2DM group. Frozen skeletal muscle biopsies obtained from lean volunteers were used to estimate cardiolipin content, mtDNA (markers of mitochondrial mass), NADH oxidase activity of mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC), and activity of citrate synthase and beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase (beta-HAD), key enzymes of TCA cycle and beta-oxidation pathway, respectively. Frozen biopsies collected from obese or T2DM individuals in our previous studies were used to estimate activity of beta-HAD. The obtained data were complemented by data from our previous studies and statistically analyzed to compare mitochondrial content and mitochondrial enzyme profile in lean, obese, or T2DM cohort. The total activity of NADH oxidase was reduced significantly in obese or T2DM subjects. The cardiolipin content for lean or obese group was similar, and although for T2DM group cardiolipin showed a tendency to decline, it was statistically insignificant. The total activity of citrate synthase for lean and T2DM group was similar; however, it was increased significantly in the obese group. Activity of beta-HAD and mtDNA content was similar for all three groups. We conclude that the total activity of NADH oxidase in biopsy for lean group is significantly higher than corresponding activity for obese or T2DM cohort. The specific activity of NADH oxidase (per mg cardiolipin) and NADH oxidase/citrate synthase and NADH oxidase/beta-HAD ratios are reduced two- to threefold in both T2DM and obesity.

Mitochondrial capacity in skeletal muscle is not stimulated by weight loss despite increases in insulin action and decreases in intramyocellular lipid content

OBJECTIVE— In obesity and type 2 diabetes, exercise combined with weight loss increases skeletal muscle mitochondrial capacity. It remains unclear whether mitochondrial capacity increases because of weight loss, improvements in insulin resistance, or physical training. In this study, we examined the effects of an intervention of weight loss induced by diet and compared these with those of a similar intervention of weight loss by diet with exercise. Both are known to improve insulin resistance, and we tested the hypothesis that physical activity, rather than improved insulin resistance, is required to increase mitochondrial capacity of muscle. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS— Sixteen sedentary overweight/obese volunteers were randomized to a 16-week intervention of diet (n = 7) or diet plus exercise (n = 9). Insulin sensitivity was measured using euglycemic clamps. Mitochondria were examined in muscle biopsies before and after intervention. We measured mitochondrial content and size by electron microscopy, electron transport chain (ETC) activity, cardiolipin content, and mitochondrial DNA content. Intramyocellular content of lipid (IMCL) and fiber-type distribution were determined by histology. RESULTS— The diet-only and diet plus exercise groups achieved similar weight loss (10.8 and 9.2%, respectively); only the diet plus exercise group improved aerobic capacity. Insulin sensitivity improved similarly in both groups. Mitochondrial content and ETC activity increased following the diet plus exercise intervention but remained unchanged following the diet-only intervention, and mitochondrial size decreased with weight loss despite improvement in insulin resistance. IMCL decreased in the diet-only but not in the diet plus exercise intervention. CONCLUSIONS— Despite similar effects to improve insulin resistance, these interventions had differential effects on mitochondria. Clinically significant weight loss in the absence of increased physical activity ameliorates insulin resistance and IMCL but does not increase muscle mitochondrial capacity in obesity.

Interleukin-6 Regulation of AMP-Activated Protein Kinase: Potential Role in the Systemic Response to Exercise and Prevention of the Metabolic Syndrome

Interleukin (IL)-6 is a pleiotropic hormone that has both proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory actions. AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a fuel-sensing enzyme that among its other actions responds to decreases in cellular energy state by enhancing processes that generate ATP and inhibiting others that consume ATP but are not acutely necessary for survival. IL-6 is synthesized and released from skeletal muscle in large amounts during exercise, and in rodents, the resultant increase in its concentration correlates temporally with increases in AMPK activity in multiple tissues. That IL-6 may be responsible in great measure for these increases in AMPK is suggested by the fact it increases AMPK activity both in muscle and adipose tissue in vivo and in incubated muscles and cultured adipocytes. In addition, we have found that AMPK activity is diminished in muscle and adipose tissue of 3-month-old IL-6 knockout (KO) mice at rest and that the absolute increases in AMPK activity in these tissues caused by exercise is diminished compared with control mice. Except for an impaired ability to exercise and to oxidize fatty acids, the IL-6 KO mouse appears normal at 3 months of age. On the other hand, by age 9 months, it manifests many of the abnormalities of the metabolic syndrome including obesity, dyslipidemia, and impaired glucose tolerance. This, plus the association of decreased AMPK activity with similar abnormalities in a number of other rodents, suggests that a decrease in AMPK activity may be a causal factor. Whether increases in IL-6, by virtue of their effects on AMPK, contribute to the reported ability of exercise to diminish the prevalence of type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, and other disorders associated with the metabolic syndrome remains to be determined.

Exercise and Weight Loss Improve Muscle Mitochondrial Respiration, Lipid Partitioning, and Insulin Sensitivity After Gastric Bypass Surgery

Both Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery and exercise can improve insulin sensitivity in individuals with severe obesity. However, the impact of RYGB with or without exercise on skeletal muscle mitochondria, intramyocellular lipids, and insulin sensitivity index (SI) is unknown. We conducted a randomized exercise trial in patients (n = 101) who underwent RYGB surgery and completed either a 6-month moderate exercise (EX) or a health education control (CON) intervention. SI was determined by intravenous glucose tolerance test. Mitochondrial respiration and intramyocellular triglyceride, sphingolipid, and diacylglycerol content were measured in vastus lateralis biopsy specimens. We found that EX provided additional improvements in SI and that only EX improved cardiorespiratory fitness, mitochondrial respiration and enzyme activities, and cardiolipin profile with no change in mitochondrial content. Muscle triglycerides were reduced in type I fibers in CON, and sphingolipids decreased in both groups, with EX showing a further reduction in a number of ceramide species. In conclusion, exercise superimposed on bariatric surgery–induced weight loss enhances mitochondrial respiration, induces cardiolipin remodeling, reduces specific sphingolipids, and provides additional improvements in insulin sensitivity.

Antioxidant Depletion, Lipid Peroxidation, and Impairment of Calcium Transport Induced by Air-Blast Overpressure in Rat Lungs

Exposure to blast overpressure, or the sudden rise in atmospheric pressure after explosive detonation, results in damage mainly of the gas-filled organs. In addition to the physical damage, in the lung, injury may proceed via a hemorrhage-dependent mechanism initiating oxidative stress and accumulation of lipid peroxidation products. Massive rupture of capillaries and red blood cells, release of hemoglobin, its oxidation to met-hemoglobin and degradation sets the stage for heme-catalyzed oxidations. The authors hypothesized that lipid hydroperoxides interact with met-hemoglobin in the lungs of exposed animals to produce ferryl-hemoglobin, an extremely potent oxidant that induces oxidative damage by depleting antioxidants and initiating peroxidation reactions. Oxidation-induced disturbance of Ca2+ homeostasis facilitates further amplification of the damage. To test this hypothesis, groups of anesthetized rats (6 rats/group) were exposed to blast at 3 peak pressures: low (61.2 kPa), medium (95.2 kPa), high (136 kPa). One group served as an unexposed control. Immediately after exposure, the rats were euthanized and the lungs were analyzed for biochemical parameters. Blast overpressure caused: (1) depletion of total and water-soluble pulmonary antioxidant reserves and individual antioxidants (ascorbate, vitamin E, GSH), (2) accumulation of lipid peroxidation products (conjugated dienes, TBARS), and (3) inhibition of ATP-dependent Ca2+ transport. The magnitude of these changes in the lungs was proportional to the peak blast overpressure. Inhibition of Ca2+ transport strongly correlated with both depletion of antioxidants and enhancement of lipid peroxidation. In model experiments, met-hemoglobin/H2O2 produced damage to Ca2+ transport in the lungs from control animals similar to that observed in the lungs from blast overpressure-exposed animals. Ascorbate, which is known to reduce ferryl-hemoglobin, protected against met-hemoglobin/H2O2-induced damage of Ca2+ transport. If ferryl-hemoglobin is the major reactive oxygen species released by hemorrhage, then its specific reductants (e.g., nitric oxide) along with other antioxidants may be beneficial protectants against pulmonary barotrauma.

Cardiac ischemia oxidizes regulatory thiols on ryanodine receptors : Captopril acts as a reducing agent to improve Ca2+ uptake by ischemic sarcoplasmic reticulum

We tested the hypothesis that ischemia alters sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ transport by oxidizing regulatory thiols on ryanodine receptors (RyRs), and that membrane-permeable sulfhydryl-containing angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors protect against ischemia-induced oxidation and explain in part, the therapeutic actions of captopril. Ca2+ uptake and adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) activity was measured from SR vesicles isolated from control or ischemic dog and human ventricles and compared with or without sulfhydryl reductants. The rate and amount of Ca2+ uptake was lower for canine ischemic SR compared with control (6.5 +/- 0.2 --> 18.5 +/- 1.1 nmol Ca2+/mg/min and 123.1 +/- 4.7 --> 235.0 +/- 17.3 nmol Ca2+/mg; n = 8 each). Captopril, dithiothreitol (DTT), glutathione (GSH), and L-cysteine increased the rate and amount of Ca2+ uptake by canine and human ischemic SR vesicles by approximately 50%. Reducing agents had no effect on Ca2+- ATPase activity in either canine control or ischemic (approximately 40% less than control) SR. Captopril was as potent as DTT at reversing the oxidation of skeletal and cardiac RyRs induced by reactive disulfides (RDSs) or nitric oxide (NO). In neonatal rat myocytes, RDSs or NO triggered SR Ca2+ release and increased cytosolic Ca2+, an effect reversed by captopril and DTT but not GSH or cysteine. Pretreatment of myocytes with captopril (exposure and then wash) inhibited Ca2+ elevation elicited by RDSs or NO, indicating that captopril is an effective, membrane-permeable intracellular reducing agent. Thus, net SR Ca2+ accumulation is reduced by ischemia in part due to the oxidation of thiols that gate RyRs, an effect reversed by captopril.

Pulmonary microsomes contain a Ca2+-transport system sensitive to oxidative stress

A variety of events, including inhalation of atmospheric chemicals, trauma, and ischemia-reperfusion, may cause generation of reactive oxygen species in the lung and result in airways constriction. The specific metabolic mechanisms that translate oxygen radical production into airways constriction are yet to be identified. In the lung, calcium homeostasis is central to release of bronchoactive and vasoactive chemical mediators and to regulation of smooth muscle cell contractility, i.e., airway constriction. In the present work, we characterized Ca(2+)-transport in the microsomal fraction of mouse lungs, and determined how reactive oxygen species, generated by Fe2+/ascorbate and H2O2/hemoglobin, affected Ca2+ transport. The microsomal fraction of pulmonary tissue accumulated 90 +/- 5 nmol Ca2+/mg protein by an ATP-dependent process in the presence of 15 mM oxalate, and 16 +/- 2 nmol Ca2+ in its absence. In the presence of oxalate, the rate of Ca2+ uptake was 50 +/- 5 nmol Ca2+/min per mg protein at pCa 5.9 (37 degrees C). The Ca(2+)-ATPase activity was 50-60 nmol Pi/min per mg protein (pCa 5.9, 37 degrees C) in the presence of alamethicin. Inhibitors of mitochondrial H(+)-ATPase had no effect on the Ca2+ transport. Half-maximal activation of Ca2+ transport was produced by 0.4-0.5 microM Ca2+. Endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+)-pump (SERC-ATPase) was found to be predominantly responsible for the Ca(2+)-accumulating capacity of the pulmonary microsomes. Incubation of the microsomes in the presence of either Fe2+/ascorbate or H2O2/hemoglobin resulted in a time-dependent accumulation of peroxidation products (TBARS) and in inhibition of the Ca2+ transport. The inhibitory effect of Fe2+/ascorbate on Ca2+ transport strictly correlated with the inhibition of the Ca(2+)-ATPase activity. These results are the first to indicate a highly active microsomal Ca2+ transport system in murine lungs which is sensitive to endogenous oxidation products. The importance of this system to pulmonary disorders exacerbated by oxidative chemicals remains to be studied.

Direct oxidation of polyunsaturated cis-parinaric fatty acid by phenoxyl radicals generated by peroxidase/H2O2 in model systems and in HL-60 cells

Reactivity of phenoxyl radicals towards biomolecules (proteins, nucleic acids and lipids) is essential for antioxidant (protective) versus prooxidant (cytotoxic) effects of phenolic compounds (antioxidants, phytochemicals, environmental pollutants and toxic chemicals). The present study demonstrates for the first time that phenoxyl radicals formed by peroxidase/H2O2-catalyzed oxidation of phenol can directly oxidize a natural polyunsaturated fatty acid, cis-parinaric acid (PnA) both in model systems and in membrane phospholipids of HL-60 cells. Endogenous antioxidants-ascorbate and glutathione-can act as one-electron reductants of phenoxyl radicals and provide effective protection against phenoxyl radical-induced oxidation of PnA.

Nitric oxide prevents myoglobin/tert-butyl hydroperoxide-induced inhibition of Ca2+ transport in skeletal and cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Abstract: Interaction of hydrogen peroxide or organic hydroperoxides with hemoproteins is known to produce oxoferryl hemoprotein species that act as very potent oxidants. Since skeletal and cardiac muscle cells contain high concentrations of myoglobin this reaction may be an important mechanism of initiation or enhancement of oxidative stress, which may impair their Ca2+ transport systems. Using skeletal and cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) vesicles, we demonstrated by EPR the formation of alkoxyl radicals and protein‐centered peroxyl radicals in the presence of myoglobin (Mb) and tert‐butyl hydroperoxide (t‐BuOOH). The low temperature EPR signal of the radicals was characterized by a major feature at g= 2.016 and a shoulder at g= 2.036 . In the presence of SR vesicles, the magnitude of the protein‐centered peroxyl radical signal decreased, suggesting that the radicals were involved in oxidative modification of SR membranes. This was accompanied by SR membrane oxidative damage, as evidenced by accumulation of 2‐thiobarbituric acid‐reactive substances (TBARS) and the inhibition of Ca2+ transport. We have shown that nitric oxide (NO), reacting with redox‐active heme iron, can prevent peroxyl radical formation activated by Mb/t‐BuOOH. Incubation of SR membranes with an NO donor, PAPA/NO (a non‐thiol compound that releases NO) at 200–500 μM completely prevented the t‐BuOOH‐dependent production of peroxyl radicals and formation of TBARS, and thus protected against oxidative inhibition of Ca2+ transport.

Adenosine Production by Brain Cells.

The early release of adenosine following traumatic brain injury (TBI) suppresses seizures and brain inflammation; thus, it is important to elucidate the cellular sources of adenosine following injurious stimuli triggered by TBI so that therapeutics for enhancing the early adenosine‐release response can be optimized. Using mass spectrometry with 13C‐labeled standards, we investigated in cultured rat neurons, astrocytes, and microglia the effects of oxygen‐glucose deprivation (OGD; models energy failure), H2O2 (produces oxidative stress), and glutamate (induces excitotoxicity) on intracellular and extracellular levels of 5′‐AMP (adenosine precursor), adenosine, and inosine and hypoxanthine (adenosine metabolites). In neurons, OGD triggered increases in intracellular 5′‐AMP (2.8‐fold), adenosine (2.6‐fold), inosine (2.2‐fold), and hypoxanthine (5.3‐fold) and extracellular 5′‐AMP (2.2‐fold), adenosine (2.4‐fold), and hypoxanthine (2.5‐fold). In neurons, H2O2 did not affect intracellular or extracellular purines; yet, glutamate increased intracellular adenosine, inosine, and hypoxanthine (1.7‐fold, 1.7‐fold, and 1.6‐fold, respectively) and extracellular adenosine, inosine, and hypoxanthine (2.9‐fold, 2.1‐fold, and 1.6‐fold, respectively). In astrocytes, neither H2O2 nor glutamate affected intracellular or extracellular purines, and OGD only slightly increased intracellular and extracellular hypoxanthine. Microglia were unresponsive to OGD and glutamate, but were remarkably responsive to H2O2, which increased intracellular 5′‐AMP (1.6‐fold), adenosine (1.6‐fold), inosine (2.1‐fold), and hypoxanthine (1.6‐fold) and extracellular 5′‐AMP (5.9‐fold), adenosine (4.0‐fold), inosine (4.3‐fold), and hypoxanthine (1.9‐fold). Conclusion: Under these particular experimental conditions, cultured neurons are the main contributors to adenosine production/release in response to OGD and glutamate, whereas cultured microglia are the main contributors upon oxidative stress. Developing therapeutics that recruit astrocytes to produce/release adenosine could have beneficial effects in TBI.