Elke Holst

Glass Ceiling Effect and Earnings - The Gender Pay Gap in Managerial Positions in Germany

Although there are a variety of studies on the gender pay gap, only a few relate to managerial positions. The present study attempts to fill this gap. Managers in private companies in Germany are a highly selective group of women and men, who differ only marginally in their human capital endowments. The Oaxaca/Blinder decomposition shows that the gender pay gap in the gross monthly salary can hardly be explained using the human capital approach. Adding variableson gender-specific labor market segregation and dimensions of the household and family to the model allows more than two-thirds of the gender pay gap to be explained. However, taking selection effects in a managerial position into account (Heckman correction), the proportion explained decreases to only one-third. This reveals the real extent to whichwomen are disadvantaged on the labor market. In addition, we observe not only that the wages in typical womens jobs are lower than in typical mens jobs but also that women are paid less than men in typical womens jobs. The two-thirds of the gender pay gap that remain unexplained represent the unobserved heterogeneity. This includes, for example, general societal and cultural conditions as well as structures and practices on the labor market and in companies that subject women to pay discrimination and pose an obstacle to them breaking the glass ceiling.

Remittances and Gender: Theoretical Considerations and Empirical Evidence

In this paper, we focus on network- and gender-specific determinants of remittances, which are often explained theoretically by way of intra-family contracts. We develop a basic formal concept that includes aspects of the transnational network and derive hypotheses from it. For our empirical investigation, we use data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP) for the years 2001-2006. Our findings show: first, the fact that foreign women remit less money than foreign men can be explained by the underlying transnational network contract. Second, remittances sent by foreigners and naturalized immigrants have at least partly different determinants. Acquiring German citizenship increases the probability of family reunification in the destination country and decreases remittances. Third, the structure of the existing social network in Germany and the network structure in the home country both play important roles in explaining remittances.

Gender, Migration, Remittances: Evidence from Germany

Gender-specific determinants of remittances are the subject of this study based on German SOEP data (2001-2006). In 2007, about 7.3 million foreigners were living in Germany. While the total number of foreigners has decreased over the last decade, female migration to Germany has increased. A feminization of migration is observable all over the world, and is changing gender roles in the households of origin as well. Today, women constitute 48.6% of migratory flows to Germany, although the proportion varies significantly by country of origin. A feminization of migration is observable all over the world, and is changing gender roles in the households of origin as well. To date, research has failed to address the gender-specific determinants of remittances from Germany. Here we attempt to fill this gap, focusing on gender roles and network effects. We distinguish between three different groups of migrants: foreigners, Germans with migration background, and all individuals with personal migration experience. Our main findings show, above all, that gender matters. However, the gender differences identified disappear after controlling for transnational (family) networks. Taking interaction terms into account reveals gender-specific network effects. In addition, different groups of migrants show remarkable differences in international networking. We find that female foreigners, but not female migrants with German citizenship, remit less than males if their children live abroad as well. Female migrants with German citizenship send more money home if their siblings remain in the home country. We find the reverse in the case of female migrants with foreign citizenship. Our findings show that female migrants tend to support their children first and foremost, while male migrants tend to support a wider network of more distant family members and friends. This finding is in sharp contrast to previous studies on remittances. It makes clear that there is little evidence supporting the assumption that remittances simply follow income-difference based altruism or that women are more altruistic than men. Furthermore, there seems to be evidence that the gender-specific differences detected in remittance behavior might be due to gender-specific migration patterns and the relative role of the migrant within the transnational network.

Erwerbsbeteiligung und Arbeitszeitwünsche 1993 und 1997

In der arbeitsmarktpolitischen Debatte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland wird spatestens seit den 80er Jahren diskutiert, mittels Arbeitszeitpolitik Arbeitslosigkeit zu reduzieren oder zumindest den Bestand der Beschaftigung zu sichern und damit ein weiteres Anwachsen der Arbeitslosigkeit zu verhindern (Seifert 1998). Hier sind grundsatzlich zwei Wege zur Erreichung von Arbeitszeitverkurzungen von Bedeutung, namlich individuelle und kollektivvertragliche Arbeitszeitreduzierungen (mit und ohne Lohnausgleich). Die Erfolge dieser unterschiedlichen Politikpfade sind in ihrem Umfang nicht unumstritten, insgesamt werden ihnen in wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen jedoch durchaus positive Beschaftigungseffekte zugeschrieben (Stille/Zwiener 1997). Einig ist man sich, das Arbeitszeitverkurzungen nur mit Unterstutzung der Beschaftigten und der Betriebe durchgefuhrt werden konnen.

Geschlechtsspezifische Verdienstunterschiede bei Führungskräften und sonstigen Angestellten in Deutschland: Welche Relevanz hat der Frauenanteil im Beruf? The Gender Pay Gap in Leadership and Other White-Collar Positions in Germany: Putting the Relevance of Women's Share in Occupations into Context

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag vergleicht den Effekt der Geschlechterzusammensetzung im Beruf auf die Verdienstunterschiede von Frauen und Männern zwischen Führungspositionen und Nicht-Führungspositionen in der Privatwirtschaft auf der Basis von Daten des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP). Anhand gängiger theoretischer Ansätze wird die Hypothese entwickelt, dass in Führungspositionen die Qualifikationsanforderungen und Arbeitsinhalte der (wenigen) Frauenberufe jenen in Männerberufen ähnlicher sind als unter den sonstigen Angestellten. Entsprechend niedriger ist die Wahrscheinlichkeit von Verdienstabschlägen typischer Frauenberufe in Führungspositionen. Die Verdienstschätzungen unter Anwendung linearer Fixed-Effects-Modelle mit Heckman-Korrektur verdeutlichen, dass nur bei weiblichen Nicht-Führungskräften ein Verdienstabschlag für Frauenberufe besteht. Eine Komponentenzerlegung der Verdienstlücke zwischen Frauen und Männern („gender pay gap“) mit verschiedenen Dekompositionsverfahren zeigt darüber hinaus, dass die Geschlechtstypik des ausgeübten Berufes für Nicht-Führungskräfte eine bedeutsame Erklärungsgröße für den „gender pay gap“ darstellt. Für Führungskräfte sind solche Effekte nicht nachweisbar. Summary This article uses German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP) data to compare the effects of occupational sex composition on the gender pay gap for persons in leadership positions and those not in leadership positions in the private sector. Drawing on established theoretical approaches, the hypothesis is advanced that leadership positions in (the relatively small number of) women’s occupations and men’s occupations are more similar in terms of qualification requirements and job content than other non-leadership white-collar positions. Accordingly, it is hypothesized that the probability of wage penalties in typical women’s occupations is lower in leadership positions. Using linear fixed-effects models with Heckman’s correction, wage estimates show that pay is lower in women’s occupations only for people in non-leadership positions. Furthermore, a decomposition of the gender wage differential reveals that the gender typicality of a given occupation partly explains the gender pay gap in non-leadership positions. For people in leadership positions, no such effect is detected.

Interrelationships among Locus of Control and Years in Management and Unemployment: Differences by Gender

This paper focuses on gender differences in the role played by locus of control within a model that predicts outcomes for men and women at two opposite poles of the labour market: high level managerial / leadership positions and unemployment. Based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, we investigated the extent to which gender differences occur in the processes by which highly positive and negative labour market outcomes are determined and in the processes underlying the development of one particular aspect of personality, that is, locus of control. Overall gender differences were more pronounced in the results for years in managerial/ leadership positions than for locus of control. Negative labour market states were also marked by gender differences, but not to the same degree observed for positive states.

1. NEW LIFE PATTERNS AND CHANGING GENDER ROLES

Abstract This chapter links new life patterns in western industrial societies to societal change and a new division of labor between women and men. Four aspects of this change are shown to parallel the processes of adaptive change that Talcott Parsons outlined in his theory of evolution of modern societies and that Miriam Johnson applied to the gender revolution: (1) technological innovation and new patterns of time use (adaptive upgrading); (2) wider role options for men and women (goal differentiation); (3) new rules and policies about equity and integration of work and family (inclusion and integration); and (4) reframing of values to achieve a better balance between productivity and caregiving (value generalization).

Immigrant Occupational Composition and the Earnings of Immigrants and Natives in Germany: Sorting or Devaluation?

In this article, the influence of immigrant occupational composition on the earnings of immigrants and natives in Germany is examined. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study and the German Microcensus, several relevant concepts are tested. The notion of quality sorting states that the differences in wages that are associated with the immigrant share within occupations are due only to differences in qualification requirements. Cultural devaluation assumes a negative influence over and above that of quality sorting. The findings indicate that both processes are at work. Additional analyses reveal that the impact of immigrant occupational composition is largely restricted to white-collar occupations, which underlines the importance of considering historical differences between occupation types in classic migration destinations such as Germany.

A Critique and Reframing of Personality in Labour Market Theory: Locus of Control and Labour Market Outcomes

This article critically examines the theoretical arguments that underlie the literature linking personality traits to economic outcomes and provides empirical evidence indicating that labour market outcomes influence personality outcomes. Based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, we investigated the extent to which gender differences occur in the processes by which highly positive and negative labour market outcomes are determined and in the processes underlying the development of one particular aspect of personality, locus of control. Gender differences were more pronounced in the results for years in managerial/ leadership positions than for locus of control. Negative labour market states were also marked by gender differences. We conclude by arguing that an explicitly value-laden analysis of the rewards associated with personality within the labour market could expose areas where the gendered nature of rewards by personality serves to perpetuate power relationships within the labour market.

Do Women in Highly Qualified Positions Face Higher Work-to-Family Conflicts in Germany than Men?

Changing employment conditions lead to new chances, but also new risks for employees. In the literature, increasing permeability between occupational and private life is discussed as one special outcome of this development that employees must face, especially those in highly qualified positions. Drawing on existing research, we investigate in how far women and men in those positions differ in their perceived work-to-family conflicts (WFC), considering the mediating role of gender specific job opportunities. Referring conflicting theoretical arguments, we hypothesize that in Germany – as a conservative welfare state – women, especially those with family responsibilities, will perceive higher WFC than men in those positions. Our analysis is based on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel Study (SOEP). Using the Siegrist instrument on effort-reward imbalance we find that women in highly qualified positions perceive higher WFC than men. This association is explained by womens lower willingness to take risks, and also party explained by lower job rewards women receive. It gets visible even more strongly if womens lower time-based burdens in the job are controlled for. Mixed results are observed concerning associations between family responsibilities and WFC, which is in line with ambivalent results in the literature.