Ellen Berscheid

Physical attractiveness and dating choice: A test of the matching hypothesis☆

Previous studies have failed to find support for the hypothesis, derived from Level of Aspiration Theory, that individuals chose to date those whose “social desirability” level is similar to their own. In the present experiments, which were designed to test the matching hypothesis, the salience of possible rejection by the dating choice was varied. Both experiments found support for the principle of matching in social choice. This support was obtained, however, not just under conditions in which rejection was presumably salient but for all conditions of choice. This and additional findings were discussed.

Outcome Dependency: Attention, Attribution, and Attraction

Theoretical and empirical work on the processes by which we attribute dispositional characteristics to others has focused almost exclusively on how such processes proceed once the perceiver has been motivated to initiate them. The problem of identifying the factors which prompt the perceiver to engage in an attributional analysis in the first place has been relatively ignored, even though the influence of such factors may extend beyond the initiation of the causal analysis to affect the manner in which it unfolds and, ultimately, the form and substance of its conclusion. From the assumption that the function of an attributional analysis is effective control of the social environment, it was hypothesized that high outcome dependency upon another, under conditions of high unfamiliarity, is associated with the initiation of an attributional analysis as evidenced by increased attention to the other, better memory of the others characteristics and behavior, more extreme and confidently given evaluations of the other on a variety of dispositional trait dimensions, and increased attraction to the other. These hypotheses were tested within the context of a study of heterosexual dating relationships in which men and women volunteers anticipated varying degrees of dependence upon another for their dating outcomes. The findings support the view that the data processing operations of the social perceiver—from attention to memory to attribution—are part of a unified whole and may be viewed as manifestations of an underlying motivation to predict and control the social environment.

Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes. 2nd ed.

Originally published in Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books, 1981, Vol 26(8), 648. Reviews the book, Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes. 2nd ed by Albert Mehrabian (1981). This new edition of Silent Messages includes a new introductory chapter that presents th

The Association between Romantic Love and Marriage Kephart (1967) Twice Revisited

In the mid-1960s, college men and women held different views of the importance of romantic love as a necessary precondition to marriage (Kephart, 1967). Women, much more so than men, reported that the absence of romantic love would not necessarily deter them from contracting a marriage. In two investigations, conducted approximately 10 and 20 years after Kepharts survey, we reassessed the role that romantic love assumes in the establishment and maintenance of marital relationships. Our results reveal that (1) a vast majority of both men and women now view romantic love as a necessary prerequisite to establishing a marital relationship; (2) since the mid-1960s, a significantly larger percentage of both men and women now indicate that they would not marry someone unless they were in love with him or her; and (3) romantic love is perceived to play a critical role not only in the establishment of a marital relationship but in its maintenance as well. These findings are discussed in the context of the dramatic social changes that have occurred in American society since the time of Kepharts first survey, many of which have had especially profound effects on the lives of women.

The Language of Love: The Difference a Preposition Makes

The terms love and in love are often used in common discourse. A social categorical approach, whereby the actual members of an individuals social categories are examined, was used to investigate the differential meaning of these terms. It was hypothesized that (a) the membership of the love category would be larger than that of the in love category; (b) the membership of the in love category would be encapsulated within the love category membership, indicating that love is the higher order generic term; (c) that the membership of the in love category, but not the love category, would be encapsulated within a sexual attraction/desire category membership; (d) although these effects would be observed for both men and women, certain gender differences would be observed. All hypotheses were confirmed. The implications of these findings for a taxonomy of love as well as for understanding and predicting love phenomena are discussed.

EFFECT OF TIME ON TENDENCY TO COMPENSATE A VICTIM

Previous research has shown that individuals may reduce the distress they feel on harming another by making reparation to their victim, by justifying their harm-doing or by seeking punishment for the act. Prediction of which distress-reduction technique or which combination will be used has been facilitated by extending theoretical equity formulations to the harm-doing situation. The present experiment, a quasi-replication of Berscheid and Walster (1967), tested and supported the hypothesis that prediction of harm-doer response based on harm-doer motivation to restore equity to his relationship with the victim will be successful primarily when there is a time interval between commitment of the harmful act and a decision to perform a distress-reduction act. When such time is not available to the harm-doer, saliency of distress-reduction opportunity may be a better predictor.

The Changing Longevity of Heterosexual Close Relationships

These are, indeed, “hard times for lovers” as the contemporary song proclaims. The chance of an adult heterosexual close relationship (CR) surviving “until death do us part” is slimmer than ever before. The rate of marital dissolution in the United States has reached an all time high (Levinger & Moles, 1976; Norton & Glick, 1976), and the current rate of dissolution among relatively high-commitment nonmarital CRs (e.g., cohabitation) is even higher (see Glick & Norton, 1977; Macklin, 1972). Approximately 40% of all current and potential marriages among women now in their late 20s may eventually end in divorce, according to Glick and Norton’s (1978) estimates derived from the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey for June 1975.

The Efficacy of Playing Hard-to-Get.

It has often been suggested that individuals will prefer dates who play “hard-to-get.” Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that teen-agers will assume that a hard-to-get individual is more socially desirable than a person whose high regard is easily obtained. This hypothesis was not confirmed; the results were opposite to those predicted. It appears that playing hard-to-get is not an effective strategy for increasing one’s status. Apparently, all the world does love a lover.

Entitlement in Romantic Relationships in the United States

“Entitlement,” according to the American Heritage Dictionary, is the “right to do or have something.” In a close relationship (CR), entitlement may be viewed as the kind of and quality of outcomes an individual believes he or she deserves to receive as a result of maintaining the relationship. Entitlement must be distinguished from the level of outcomes one expects to receive from the relationship, although in practice the two may be highly correlated, with most people no doubt expecting to receive what they deserve, given the widespread belief in a “just world” (Lerner & Lerner, 1981). The concept of entitlement directly engages social-exchange theory. For example, social-exchange theorists believe that knowledge of an individual’s comparison level is vital to understanding social relationships, including romantic relationships. An individual’s comparison level is the goodness-of-outcome level an individual believes he or she deserves in a specific relationship.

Increased conformity to a fellow deviant as a function of prior deviation

Abstract A subject was induced to publically report his opinions on a variety of issues. A group of confederates disagreed with the subject; one confederate agreed with him. Thus, the subject deviated from the majority of the group, but received social support from one other individual. Each subject was then paired with one individual from the previous group, and regardless of his pairing, was subjected to a constant amount of conformity pressure from the confederate on a new set of judgments. Deviant subjects conformed more to the confederate who had previously given them social support than they did to a previous majority member. This increased conformity was found in two studies, (1) females judging physical realities and, (2) males reporting their opinions on attitudinal issues. Ratings taken in the second study demonstrated that the deviant subject felt increased liking for and similarity to the confederate who initially provided him with social support, but comparisons between various experimental groups indicated conformity to a confederate was not completely predictable from the subjects liking for that confederate. Instead, conformity was greatest following an experience of deviation from the majority.