Elmar Stahl

Help Seeking and Help Design in Interactive Learning Environments

Many interactive learning environments (ILEs) offer on-demand help, intended to positively influence learning. Recent studies report evidence that although effective help-seeking behavior in ILEs is related to better learning outcomes, learners are not using help facilities effectively. This selective review (a) examines theoretical perspectives on the role of on-demand help in ILEs, (b) reviews literature on the relations between help seeking and learning in ILEs, and (c) identifies reasons for the lack of effective help use. We review the effect of system-related factors, of student-related factors, and of interactions between these factors. The interaction between metacognitive skills and cognitive factors is important for appropriate help seeking, as are a potentially large space of system-related factors as well as interactions among learner- and system-related factors. We suggest directions for future research.

Knowledge and Epistemological Beliefs: An Intimate but Complicate Relationship

It is widely assumed that more sophisticated epistemological beliefs improve learners’ understanding and knowledge. Nevertheless, recent findings challenge the idea of a simple relationship between the quality of epistemological beliefs and knowledge. For example, there is some evidence that the amount of knowledge with regard to different topics and the quality of epistemological beliefs is correlated negatively. Furthermore, gaining factual knowledge sometimes results in less sophisticated epistemological beliefs. These findings point to the question what makes up sophisticatedness and how it is related to knowledge about a certain discipline? In other words, which kinds of knowledge are necessary for the development of a sophisticated standpoint?

Adaptation to Context as Core Component of Self-Regulated Learning: The Example of Complexity and Epistemic Beliefs

In this chapter we raise two important issues regarding the metacognitive self-regulation of learning with technologies: First, adaptation to the external context is a core component of self-regulated learning. Empirical research regarding task complexity and text complexity – two exemplary external conditions – shows that learners systematically adapt their whole self-regulated learning process within a hypermedia learning environment to these contextual conditions. Therefore, careful construction and evaluation of learning tasks and learning content is warranted. In this context communicating and teaching the demands of complex learning scenarios deserves special attention. Second, learner characteristics play an important role in self-regulated learning and adaptation. Empirical research regarding epistemic beliefs – one exemplary learner characteristic – shows that learners with absolutistic beliefs will plan and execute different learning processes than those with sophisticated beliefs; these differences are especially pronounced under conditions of high complexity. Given the general superiority of the learning and adaptation processes of more sophisticated learners such beliefs should be a learning goal of their own and should be explicitly addressed in learning scenarios.

The Generative Nature of Epistemological Judgments: Focusing on Interactions Instead of Elements to Understand the Relationship Between Epistemological Beliefs and Cognitive Flexibility

The aim of this chapter is to discuss epistemological beliefs and epistemological judgments in relation to cognitive flexibility. Data from cognitive science and cognitive psychology are discussed to show that the human information processing system can be defined as a highly flexible system. From this perspective, cognitive flexibility can be seen to some degree as normality and not as an exceptional case (Statement 1: Cognitive flexibility is normality not an exceptional case). Against this background, the idea of a generative nature of epistemological judgments is presented. This perspective provides possible (re-)interpretations of conceptual and methodological problems of research on epistemological beliefs (Statement 2: Stability is normality in educational psychology and cognitive flexibility is the exceptional case). To examine the value of this idea, a research philosophy is necessary that focuses on interactions instead of separate cognitive elements to understand the flexibility of the cognitive system. Possible research designs are discussed how to use such an approach to get new insights into the claimed generative nature of epistemological judgments and the relationship between epistemological beliefs and cognitive flexibility (Statement 3: Focusing on detailed interactions between complementary cognitive elements as the smallest unit to understand the flexibility of epistemological judgments is necessary).

Learning by Writing Hypertext: A Research Based Design of University Courses in Writing Hypertext

In this chapter the design of university courses about writing hypertext is presented. The aim of these courses is to teach students how to write hypertext in a way that supports their knowledge acquisition in the subject matter to be processed. To achieve this objective, reflection on the design of hypertext is used to foster comprehension of the contents. The courses encompass five teaching units to present how to work with the features of hypertext appropriately. The instructional program of the courses was developed by taking theoretical ideas and empirical research about reading and writing traditional texts and hypertexts into account. Each of the units covers one of the aspects, which have to be dealt with during the process of writing hypertext: a) developing a basic understanding for hypertext, b) designing nodes, c) organizing an overall structure, d) considering multiple audience perspectives and e) setting links. The main elements of the instructional program are described in detail. An overview of the theoretical background and some concrete examples from the courses are given for each unit. The discussion shall embed this approach within the field of computer-based teaching.

Spatial metaphors and writing hypertexts: Study within schools

This article deals with the writing of hypertext during regular school lessons. We suppose that hypertext-environments can be used as “cognitive tools” to promote the comprehension of semantic relationships within a subject and the reflection about knowledge structures. From research on learning by writing traditional text (Bereiter & Scardamalia 1987), it can be expected that the constitutive features of “hypertext” must be comprehensible for leaner. In this study, we focus in particular on the question: Which metaphors are helpful to introduce the main idea of “hypertext” as a cognitive tool? In an explorative field study, we examined two parallel classes constructing hypertexts during their regular school lessons. The teachers in both classes used completely different metaphors to introduce the concept of hypertext. The metaphor chosen influenced both the structures of the completed hypertext-documents and the discussion about the subject matter. The space-metaphor seems to be especially appropriate to introduce the concept of hypertext to the learner in such a way that a creative interaction between the structure of the hypertext and the semantic structure of the subject could result. Three tests were administered to measure the degree to which knowledge about semantic relations and structures was acquired. The class that had discussed hypertext with spatial metaphors showed significantly better results than the parallel class.RésuméL’article concerne l’écriture d’hypertextes au cours de leçons à l’école. Les auteurs pensent que les environnements-hypertextes peuvent être utilisés comme “outils cognitifs” pour développer la compréhension des relations sémantiques relatives à un champ d’enseignement et la réflexion sur les structures de connaissances. A partir de la recherche sur l’apprentissage par l’écriture de textes traditionnels (Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987), on peut faire l’hypothèse que les caractéristiques constitutives des hypertextes doivent être compréhensibles par les apprenants. Dans leur étude, les auteurs se focalisent en particulier sur la question suivante: quelles métaphores sont utiles pour introduire l’idée centrale d’hypertexte comme un outil cognitif? Dans une étude exploratoire de terrain, les auteurs examinent deux classes parallèles construisant des hypertextes pendant leurs séances scolaires habituelles. Dans chaque classe les enseignant utilisent des métaphores complètement différentes pour introduire le concept d’hypertexte. La métaphore choisie influence à la fois les structures des documents hypertextes réalisés et la discussion à propos de la discipline scolaire. La métaphore spatiale semble être particulièrement appropriée pour présenter le concept d’hypertexte à l’apprenant de façon à provoquer une interaction créative entre la structure de l’hypertexte et la structure sémantique du domaine étudié. Trois test ont été administrés pour mesurer le degré d’acquisition des connaissances concernant les relations sémantiques et les structures. La classe qui a discuté l’hypertexte avec des métaphores spatiales a obtenu des résultats significativement supérieurs à ceux de la classe parallèle.

How can we use hypervideo design projects to construct knowledge in university courses

In this paper a course concept based on collaborative construction of hypervideos is presented. The course concept integrates a) hypervideo technology development, b) research on learning with hypervideo systems, and c) the application of research on knowledge acquisition by writing texts or hypertexts to hypervideos. We demonstrate how collaborative construction of hypervideo can support knowledge transforming processes (see Bereiter & Scardamalia, 1987; Stahl & Bromme, 2004) in university courses of psychology students. In the first part of the paper a hypervideo system that enables collaborative design activities by users is discussed. Afterwards the course concept is presented in detail. Evaluation results are consistent with our assumptions. The course concept showed to be successful and well appreciated by the students.

The Case of Plant Identification in Biology: When Is a Rose a Rose?

In this chapter we illustrated problems and possibilities for the development of expertise within the domain of plant identification. To identify plants novices in botany must acquire a combination of robust but also flexible knowledge from the very beginning. Therefore, constructivist principles as suggested by Cognitive Flexibility Theory and Cognitive Apprenticeship constitute important heuristics for fostering this kind of knowledge acquisition. Because the tight curriculum of university courses does not allow the application of these principles, it needs to be supplemented by new ways of learning. On the basis of an extensive problem analysis as well as a detailed analysis of cognitive and operative processes a learning environment with various help functions especially tailored to the beginners’ needs was designed.

Epistemological Judgments in Mathematics: An Interview Study Regarding the Certainty of Mathematical Knowledge

Research on personal epistemology is confronted with theoretical issues as there exist conflicting data regarding its coherence, discipline-relation and contextdependence as well as methodological issues regarding the often used questionnaires to measure epistemological beliefs. We claim that it is necessary to distinguish between relatively stable “epistemological beliefs” and situationspecific “epistemological judgments”. In a sequence of interviews with regard to the topic of “certainty of mathematical knowledge”, we show that the usual categories used in questionnaires to measure epistemological beliefs have to be differentiated. We argue that epistemological judgments provide a promising framework to interpret the statements of the interviewees.

Epistemological Beliefs and Students’ Adaptive Perception of Task Complexity

Epistemological beliefs are usually defined as beliefs about knowledge and knowing. One of the most widely used framework within educational psychology (Buehl & Alexander, 2001; Hofer & Pintrich, 1997), among others widely used (Niessen, Vermunt, Abma, Widdershoven, & van der Vleuten, 2004), comprises four identifiable and more or less interrelated dimensions of beliefs.