Elvire De Beck

Discovery of Time Variation of the Intensity of Molecular Lines in IRC+10216 in The Submillimeter and Far Infrared Domains

We report on the discovery of strong intensity variations in the high rotational lines of abundant molecular species towards the archetypical circumstellar envelope of IRC+10216. The observations have been carried out with the HIFI instrument on board Herschel and with the IRAM 30-m telescope. They cover several observing periods spreading over 3 years. The line intensity variations for molecules produced in the external layers of the envelope most probably result from time variations in the infrared pumping rates. We analyze the main implications this discovery has on the interpretation of molecular line emission in the envelopes of Mira-type stars. Radiative transfer calculations have to take into account both the time variability of infrared pumping and the possible variation of the dust and gas temperatures with stellar phase in order to reproduce the observation of molecular lines at different epochs. The effect of gas temperature variations with stellar phase could be particularly important for lines produced in the innermost regions of the envelope. Each layer of the circumstellar envelope sees the stellar light radiation with a different lag time (phase). Our results show that this effect must be included in the models. The sub-mm and FIR lines of AGB stars cannot anymore be considered as safe intensity calibrators.

Sulphur molecules in the circumstellar envelopes of M-type AGB stars

Aims. The sulphur compounds SO and SO2 have not been widely studied in the circumstellar envelopes of asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars. By presenting and modelling a large number of SO and SO2 lines in the low mass-loss rate M-type AGB star R Dor, and modelling the available lines of those molecules in a further four M-type AGB stars, we aim to determine their circumstellar abundances and distributions. Methods. We use a detailed radiative transfer analysis based on the accelerated lambda iteration method to model circumstellar SO and SO2 line emission. We use molecular data files for both SO and SO2 that are more extensive than those previously available. Results. Using 17 SO lines and 98 SO2 lines to constrain our models for R Dor, we find an SO abundance of (6.7 +/- 0.9) x 10(6) and an SO2 abundance of 5 x 10(6) with both species having high abundances close to the star. We also modelled (SO)-S-34 and found an abundance of (3.1 +/- 0.8) x 10(7), giving an (SO)-S-32/(SO)-S-34 ratio of 21.6 +/- 8.5. We derive similar results for the circumstellar SO and SO2 abundances and their distributions for the low mass-loss rate object W Hya. For the higher mass-loss rate stars, we find shell-like SO distributions with peak abundances that decrease and peak abundance radii that increase with increasing mass-loss rate. The positions of the peak SO abundance agree very well with the photodissociation radii of H2O. We also modelled SO2 in two higher mass-loss rate stars but our models for these were less conclusive. Conclusions. We conclude that for the low mass-loss rate stars, the circumstellar SO and SO2 abundances are much higher than predicted by chemical models of the extended stellar atmosphere. These two species may also account for all the available sulphur. For the higher mass-loss rate stars we find evidence that SO is most efficiently formed in the circumstellar envelope, most likely through the photodissociation of H2O and the subsequent reaction between S and OH. The S-bearing parent molecule does not appear to be H2S. The SO2 models for the higher mass-loss rate stars are less conclusive, but suggest an origin close to the star for this species. This is not consistent with current chemical models. The combined circumstellar SO and SO2 abundances are significantly lower than that of sulphur for these higher mass-loss rate objects.

Study of the aluminium content in AGB winds using ALMA Indications for the presence of gas-phase (Al2O3)n clusters

Context. The condensation of inorganic dust grains in the winds of evolved stars is poorly understood. As of today, it is not yet known which molecular clusters form the first dust grains in oxygen-rich (C/O 34) can be the potential agents of the broad 11 mu m feature in the SED and in the interferometric data and we propose potential formation mechanisms for these large clusters.Context. The condensation of inorganic dust grains in the winds of evolved stars is poorly understood. As of today, it is not yet known which (clusters of) molecular gas-phase species form the first dust grains in oxygen-rich (C/O<1) Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) winds. Aluminium oxides and iron-free silicates are often put forward as promising candidates for the first dust seeds. Aims. We aim to constrain the dust formation histories in the winds of oxygen-rich AGB stars. Methods. We have obtained ALMA observations with a spatial resolution of 120 × 150 mas tracing the dust formation region of a low mass-loss rate and a high mass-loss rate AGB star, respectively being R Dor and IK Tau. Emission line profiles of AlO, AlOH and AlCl are detected in the ALMA data and are used to derive a lower limit of atomic aluminium incorporated in molecules. This constrains the aluminium budget that can condense into grains. Results. Radiative transfer models constrain the fractional abundances of AlO, AlOH, and AlCl in IK Tau and R Dor. We show that the gas-phase aluminium chemistry is completely different in both stars, with a remarkable difference in the AlO and AlOH abundance stratification. The amount of aluminium locked up in these 3 molecules is small, ≤1.1×10−7, for both stars, i.e. only ≤2% of the total aluminium budget. A fundamental result is that AlO and AlOH, being the direct precursors of alumina grains, are detected well beyond the onset of the dust condensation proving that the aluminium oxide condensation cycle is not fully efficient. The ALMA observations allow us to quantitatively assess the current generation of theoretical dynamical-chemical models for AGB winds. We discuss how the current proposed scenario of aluminium dust condensation for low mass-loss rate AGB stars at a distance of∼1.5 R?, in particular for the stars R Dor and W Hya, poses a challenge if one wishes to explain both the dust spectral features in the spectral energy distribution (SED), in interferometric data, and in polarized light signal. In particular, the estimated grain temperature of Al2O3 is too high for the grains to retain their amorphous structure. We propose that large gas-phase (Al2O3)n-clusters (n > 34) can be the potential agents of the broad 11μm feature in the SED and in the interferometric data and we explain how these large clusters can be formed. Conclusions. The ALMA data provide us with an excellent diagnostic tool to study the gaseous precursors of the first grains in AGB winds. The observations enable us to constrain theoretical wind models and to refine our knowledge of the chemical sequence followed by aluminium species when going through the phase transition from gaseous to solid-state species. Aluminium-bearing molecules only lock up ∼2% of aluminium in the inner wind of IK Tau and R Dor. If the rest of aluminium would form solid-state dust species, there remain challenges to explain different sets of observational data. We hypothesize that large gas-phase (Al2O3)nclusters (n > 34) are the carrier of the broad 11μm feature which is prominently visible in the SED of low mass-loss rate O-rich AGB stars.

The circumstellar envelope around the S-type AGB star W Aql - Effects of an eccentric binary orbit

Context Recent observations at subarcsecond resolution, now possible also at submillimeter wavelengths, have shown intricate circumstellar structures around asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, mostly attributed to binary interaction. The results presented here are part of a larger project aimed at investigating the effects of a binary companion on the morphology of circumstellar envelopes (CSEs) of AGB stars. Aims AGB stars are characterized by intense stellar winds that build CSEs around the stars. Here, the CO(J = 3→2) emission from the CSE of the binary S-type AGB star W Aql has been observed at subarcsecond resolution using ALMA. The aim of this paper is to investigate the wind properties of the AGB star and to analyse how the known companion has shaped the CSE. Methods The average mass-loss rate during the creation of the detected CSE is estimated through modelling, using the ALMA brightness distribution and previously published single-dish measurements as observational constraints. The ALMA observations are presented and compared to the results from a 3D smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) binary interaction model with the same properties as the W Aql system and with two different orbital eccentricities. Three-dimensional radiative transfer modelling is performed and the response of the interferometer is modelled and discussed. Results The estimated average mass-loss rate of W Aql is Ṁ = 3.0×10-6 M⊙ yr-1 and agrees with previous results based on single-dish CO line emission observations. The size of the emitting region is consistent with photodissociation models. The inner 10″ of the CSE is asymmetric with arc-like structures at separations of 2-3″ scattered across the denser sections. Further out, weaker spiral structures at greater separations are found, but this is at the limit of the sensitivity and field of view of the ALMA observations. Conclusions The CO(J = 3→2) emission is dominated by a smooth component overlayed with two weak arc patterns with different separations. The larger pattern is predicted by the binary interaction model with separations of ~10″ and therefore likely due to the known companion. It is consistent with a binary orbit with low eccentricity. The smaller separation pattern is asymmetric and coincides with the dust distribution, but the separation timescale (200 yrs) is not consistent with any known process of the system. The separation of the known companions of the system is large enough to not have a very strong effect on the circumstellar morphology. The density contrast across the envelope of a binary with an even larger separation will not be easily detectable, even with ALMA, unless the orbit is strongly asymmetric or the AGB star has a much larger mass-loss rate.

SEPIA - a new single pixel receiver at the APEX Telescope

Context: We describe the new SEPIA (Swedish-ESO PI Instrument for APEX) receiver, which was designed and built by the Group for Advanced Receiver Development (GARD), at Onsala Space Observatory (OSO) in collaboration with ESO. It was installed and commissioned at the APEX telescope during 2015 with an ALMA Band 5 receiver channel and updated with a new frequency channel (ALMA Band 9) in February 2016. Aims: This manuscript aims to provide, for observers who use the SEPIA receiver, a reference in terms of the hardware description, optics and performance as well as the commissioning results. Methods: Out of three available receiver cartridge positions in SEPIA, the two current frequency channels, corresponding to ALMA Band 5, the RF band 158--211 GHz, and Band 9, the RF band 600--722 GHz, provide state-of-the-art dual polarization receivers. The Band 5 frequency channel uses 2SB SIS mixers with an average SSB noise temperature around 45K with IF (intermediate frequency) band 4--8 GHz for each sideband providing total 4x4 GHz IF band. The Band 9 frequency channel uses DSB SIS mixers with a noise temperature of 75--125K with IF band 4--12 GHz for each polarization. Results: Both current SEPIA receiver channels are available to all APEX observers.

Sulphur-bearing molecules in AGB stars

Context. Sulphur is a relatively abundant element in the local Galaxy that is known to form a variety of molecules in the circumstellar envelopes of AGB stars. The abundances of these molecules vary based on the chemical types and mass-loss rates of AGB stars. Aims. Through a survey of (sub-) millimetre emission lines of various sulphur-bearing molecules, we aim to determine which molecules are the primary carriers of sulphur in different types of AGB stars. In this paper, the first in a series, we investigate the occurrence of H2S in AGB circumstellar envelopes and determine its abundance, where possible. Methods. We surveyed 20 AGB stars with a range of mass-loss rates and different chemical types using the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) telescope to search for rotational transition lines of five key sulphur-bearing molecules: CS, SiS, SO, SO2, and H2S. Here we present our results for H2S, including detections, non-detections, and detailed radiative transfer modelling of the detected lines. We compared results based on various descriptions of the molecular excitation of H2S and different abundance distributions, including Gaussian abundances, where possible, and two different abundance distributions derived from chemical modelling results. Results. We detected H2S towards five AGB stars, all of which have high mass-loss rates of. M >= 5 x 10(-6) M-circle dot yr(-1) and are oxygen rich. H2S was not detected towards the carbon or S-type stars that fall in a similar mass-loss range. For the stars in our sample with detections, we find peak o-H2S abundances relative to H-2 between 4 x 10(-7) and 2.5 x 10(-5). Conclusions. Overall, we conclude that H2S can play a significant role in oxygen-rich AGB stars with higher mass-loss rates, but is unlikely to play a key role in stars of other chemical types or in lower mass-loss rate oxygen-rich stars. For two sources, V1300 Aql and GX Mon, H2S is most likely the dominant sulphur-bearing molecule in the circumstellar envelope.

The shock-heated atmosphere of an asymptotic giant branch star resolved by ALMA

Our current understanding of the chemistry and mass-loss processes in Sun-like stars at the end of their evolution depends critically on the description of convection, pulsations and shocks in the extended stellar atmosphere1. Three-dimensional hydrodynamical stellar atmosphere models provide observational predictions2, but so far the resolution to constrain the complex temperature and velocity structures seen in the models has been lacking. Here we present submillimetre continuum and line observations that resolve the atmosphere of the asymptotic giant branch star W Hydrae. We show that hot gas with chromospheric characteristics exists around the star. Its filling factor is shown to be small. The existence of such gas requires shocks with a cooling time longer than commonly assumed. A shocked hot layer will be an important ingredient in current models of stellar convection, pulsation and chemistry at the late stages of stellar evolution.The atmosphere of evolved star W Hya has been resolved with ALMA and shown to be shock heated. These observations provide important empirical constraints for the understanding of circumstellar structure, convection, chemistry and pulsation.

ALMA observations of TiO2 around VY CMa

Titanium dioxide, TiO2, is a refractory species that could play a crucial role in the dust-condensation sequence around oxygen-rich evolved stars. We present and discuss the detections of 15 emission lines of TiO2 with ALMA in the complex environment of the red supergiant VY CMa. The observations reveal a highly clumpy, anisotropic outflow in which the TiO2 emission likely traces gas exposed to the stellar radiation field. We find evidence for a roughly east-west oriented, accelerating bipolar-like structure, of which the blue component runs into and breaks up around a solid continuum component. We see a distinct tail to the south-west for some transitions, consistent with features seen in the optical and near-infrared. We find that a significant fraction of TiO2 remains in the gas phase outside the dust-formation zone and suggest that this species might play only a minor role in the dust-condensation process around extreme oxygen-rich evolved stars like VY CMa.

The Origins Space Telescope

The Origins Space Telescope, one of four large Mission Concept Studies sponsored by NASA for review in the 2020 US Astrophysics Decadal Survey, will open unprecedented discovery space in the infrared, unveiling our cosmic origins.

An independent distance estimate to the AGB star R Sculptoris

Context. Distance measurements to astronomical objects are essential for understanding their intrinsic properties. For asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars it is particularly difficult to derive accurate distance estimates. Period-luminosity relationships rely on the correlation of different physical properties of the stars, while the angular sizes and variability of AGB stars make parallax measurements inherently inaccurate. For the carbon AGB star R Sculptoris, the uncertain distance significantly affects the interpretation of observations regarding the evolution of the stellar mass loss during and after the most recent thermal pulse. Aim. We aim to provide a new, independent measurement of the distance to R Sculptoris, reducing the absolute uncertainty of the distance estimate to this source. Methods. R Scl is a semi-regular pulsating star, surrounded by a thin shell of dust and gas created during a thermal pulse ≈ 2000 years ago. The stellar light is scattered by the dust particles in the shell at a radius of ≈ 19″. The variation in the stellar light affects the amount of dust-scattered light with the same period and amplitude ratio, but with a phase lag that depends on the absolute size of the shell. We measured this phase lag by observing the star R Scl and the dust-scattered stellar light from the shell at five epochs between June-December 2016. By observing in polarised light, we imaged the shell in the plane of the sky, removing any uncertainty due to geometrical effects. The phase lag gives the absolute size of the shell, and together with the angular size of the shell directly gives the absolute distance to R Sculptoris. Results. We measured a phase lag between the stellar variations and the variation in the shell of 40.0 ± 4.0 days. The angular size of the shell is measured to be 19.″1 ± 0.″7. Combined, this gives an absolute distance to R Sculptoris of 361 ± 44 pc. Conclusions. We independently determined the absolute distance to R Scl with an uncertainty of 12%. The estimated distance is consistent with previous estimates, but is one of the most accurate distances to the source to date. In the future, using the variations in polarised, dust-scattered stellar light, may offer an independent possibility to measure reliable distances to AGB stars.