Elyssa D. Burg

Suggestive evidence for association of the circadian genes PERIOD3 and ARNTL with bipolar disorder.

Bipolar affective disorder (BPAD) is suspected to arise in part from malfunctions of the circadian system, a system that enables adaptation to a daily and seasonally cycling environment. Genetic variations altering functions of genes involved with the input to the circadian clock, in the molecular feedback loops constituting the circadian oscillatory mechanism itself, or in the regulatory output systems could influence BPAD as a result. Several human circadian system genes have been identified and localized recently, and a comparison with linkage hotspots for BPAD has revealed some correspondences. We have assessed evidence for linkage and association involving polymorphisms in 10 circadian clock genes (ARNTL, CLOCK, CRY2, CSNK1ε, DBP, GSK3β, NPAS2, PER1, PER2, and PER3) to BPAD. Linkage analysis in 52 affected families showed suggestive evidence for linkage to CSNK1ε. This finding was not substantiated in the association study. Fifty‐two SNPs in 10 clock genes were genotyped in 185 parent proband triads. Single SNP TDT analyses showed no evidence for association to BPAD. However, more powerful haplotype analyses suggest two candidates deserving further studies. Haplotypes in ARNTL and PER3 were found to be significantly associated with BPAD via single‐gene permutation tests (PG = 0.025 and 0.008, respectively). The most suggestive haplotypes in PER3 showed a Bonferroni‐corrected P‐value of PGC = 0.07. These two genes have previously been implicated in circadian rhythm sleep disorders and affective disorders. With correction for the number of genes considered and tests conducted, these data do not provide statistically significant evidence for association. However, the trends for ARNTL and PER3 are suggestive of their involvement in bipolar disorder and warrant further study in a larger sample.

K + Channels in Apoptosis

A proper rate of programmed cell death or apoptosis is required to maintain normal tissue homeostasis. In disease states such as cancer and some forms of hypertension, apoptosis is blocked, resulting in hyperplasia. In neurodegenerative diseases, uncontrolled apoptosis leads to loss of brain tissue. The flow of ions in and out of the cell and its intracellular organelles is becoming increasingly linked to the generation of many of these diseased states. This review focuses on the transport of K+ across the cell membrane and that of the mitochondria via integral K+-permeable channels. We describe the different types of K+ channels that have been identified, and investigate the roles they play in controlling the different phases of apoptosis: early cell shrinkage, cytochrome c release, caspase activation, and DNA fragmentation. Attention is also given to K+ channels on the inner mitochondrial membrane, whose activity may underlie anti- or pro-apoptotic mechanisms in neurons and cardiomyocytes.

Potassium channels in the regulation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell proliferation and apoptosis: Pharmacotherapeutic implications

Maintaining the proper balance between cell apoptosis and proliferation is required for normal tissue homeostasis; when this balance is disrupted, disease such as pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH) can result. Activity of K+ channels plays a major role in regulating the pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell (PASMC) population in the pulmonary vasculature, as they are involved in cell apoptosis, survival and proliferation. PASMCs from PAH patients demonstrate many cellular abnormalities linked to K+ channels, including decreased K+ current, downregulated expression of various K+ channels, and inhibited apoptosis. K+ is the major intracellular cation, and the K+ current is a major determinant of cell volume. Apoptotic volume decrease (AVD), an early hallmark and prerequisite of programmed cell death, is characterized by K+ and Cl− efflux. In addition to its role in AVD, cytosolic K+ can be inhibitory toward endogenous caspases and nucleases and can suppress mitochondrial cytochrome c release. In PASMC, K+ channel activation accelerates AVD and enhances apoptosis, while K+ channel inhibition decelerates AVD and inhibits apoptosis. Finally, inhibition of K+ channels, by increasing cytosolic [Ca2+] as a result of membrane depolarization‐mediated opening of voltage‐dependent Ca2+ channels, leads to PASMC contraction and proliferation. The goals of this review are twofold: (1) to elucidate the role of K+ ions and K+ channels in the proliferation and apoptosis of PASMC, with an emphasis on abnormal cell growth in human and animal models of PAH, and (2) to elaborate upon the targeting of K+ flux pathways for pharmacological treatment of pulmonary vascular disease.

Combination of sildenafil and simvastatin ameliorates monocrotaline-induced pulmonary hypertension in rats

Sildenafil, a phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor, and simvastatin, a cholesterol lowering drug, both have therapeutic effects on PAH; however, the combination of these drugs has not been tested in the treatment of PAH. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the combination of sildenafil and simvastatin is superior to each drug alone in the prevention of MCT-induced PAH. Phosphorylated Smad levels were decreased in lung tissue in MCT-injected rats, whereas ERK protein levels were increased. This indicates a possible role for an increase in mitogenic ERK activity in addition to decreased proapoptotic Smad signaling in the MCT model of PAH. Combination sildenafil and simvastatin treatment prevented the MCT-induced increases in right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) and right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH), exerted an anti-proliferative effect on pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC). Our results indicate that combination therapy with sildenafil and simvastatin attenuated the development of pulmonary hypertension more than either treatment alone.

Drosophila social clustering is disrupted by anesthetics and in narrow abdomen ion channel mutants.

Members of many species tend to congregate, a behavioral strategy known as local enhancement. Selective advantages of local enhancement range from efficient use of resources to defense from predators. While previous studies have examined many types of social behavior in fruit flies, few have specifically investigated local enhancement. Resource-independent local enhancement (RILE) has recently been described in the fruit fly using a measure called social space index (SSI), although the neural mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we analyze RILE of Drosophila under conditions that allow us to elucidate its neural mechanisms. We have investigated the effects of general volatile anesthetics, compounds that compromise higher order functioning of the type typically required for responding to social cues. We exposed Canton-S flies to non-immobilizing concentrations of halothane and found that flies had a significantly decreased SSI compared with flies tested in air. Narrow abdomen (na) mutants, which display altered responses to anesthetics in numerous behavioral assays, also have a significantly reduced SSI, an effect that was fully reversed by restoring expression of na by driving a UAS-NA rescue construct with NA-GAL4. We found that na expression in cholinergic neurons fully rescued the behavioral defect, whereas expression of na in glutamatergic neurons did so only partially. Our results also suggest a role for na expression in the mushroom bodies (MBs), as suppressing na expression in the MBs of NA-GAL4 rescue flies diminishes SSI. Our data indicate that RILE, a simple behavioral strategy, requires complex neural processing.

Tetramerization domain mutations in KCNA5 affect channel kinetics and cause abnormal trafficking patterns.

The activity of voltage-gated K(+) (K(V)) channels plays an important role in regulating pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell (PASMC) contraction, proliferation, and apoptosis. The highly conserved NH(2)-terminal tetramerization domain (T1) of K(V) channels is important for proper channel assembly, association with regulatory K(V) beta-subunits, and localization of the channel to the plasma membrane. We recently reported two nonsynonymous mutations (G182R and E211D) in the KCNA5 gene of patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension, which localize to the T1 domain of KCNA5. To study the electrophysiological properties and expression patterns of the mutants compared with the wild-type (WT) channel in vitro, we transfected HEK-293 cells with WT KCNA5, G182R, E211D, or the double mutant G182R/E211D channel. The mutants form functional channels; however, whole cell current kinetic differences between WT and mutant channels exist. Steady-state inactivation curves of the G182R and G182R/E211D channels reveal accelerated inactivation; the mutant channels inactivated at more hyperpolarized potentials compared with the WT channel. Channel protein expression was also decreased by the mutations. Compared with the WT channel, which was present in its mature glycosylated form, the mutant channels are present in greater proportion in their immature form in HEK-293 cells. Furthermore, G182R protein level is greatly reduced in COS-1 cells compared with WT. Immunostaining data support the hypothesis that, while WT protein localizes to the plasma membrane, mutant protein is mainly retained in intracellular packets. Overall, these data support a role for the T1 domain in channel kinetics as well as in KCNA5 channel subcellular localization.

Hypoxia selectively inhibits KCNA5 channels in pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells.

Acute hypoxia induces pulmonary vasoconstriction and chronic hypoxia causes pulmonary vascular remodeling characterized by significant vascular medial hypertrophy. Electromechanical and pharmacomechanical mechanisms are involved in regulating pulmonary vasomotor tone, while changes in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]cyt) are an important signal in regulating contraction and proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMC). Hypoxia‐induced increases in [Ca2+]cyt are, in part, mediated by selective inhibition of voltage‐gated K+ (Kv) channels in PASMC. Kv1.5, encoded by the KCNA5 gene, is a Kv channel α subunit that forms functional homotetrameric and heterotetrameric Kv channels in PASMC. Activity of Kv channels contributes to the regulation of resting membrane potential. Overexpression of the human KCNA5 gene in rat PASMC and other cell types increases whole‐cell Kv currents and causes membrane hyperpolarization. However, acute hypoxia only reduced Kv currents in KCNA5‐transfected PASMC. These results provide compelling evidence that Kv1.5 is an important hypoxia‐sensitive Kv channel in PASMC, contributing to regulation of membrane potential and intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis during hypoxia. This hypoxia‐sensitive mechanism essential for inhibiting Kv1.5 channel activity is exclusively present in PASMC.

Combination use of sildenafil and simvastatin increases BMPR-II signal transduction in rats with monocrotaline-mediated pulmonary hypertension

111 Dysfunctional bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling has been found in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH); however, the exact role of BMP signaling in the treatment of PAH remains unknown. The BMP receptor type II (BMPR-II) is a member of the TGF-β family of signaling molecules. Functional receptors are heterodimers composed of a BMPR-II subunit and a serine–threonine kinase type I subunit, of which there are three members: BMPR-Ia, BMPR-Ib and Alk2.[1,2] Both BMPR-II and BMPR-Ia/Ib are highly expressed in the pulmonary vascular smooth muscle and endothelium. The discovery of heterozygous mutations of the BMPR-II gene (BMPR2) in patients with hereditary (or familial) PAH and patients with idiopathic PAH [3,4] represented a significant advance in the understanding of the genetic contributions to PAH.