Emmanuel Zagury Tourinho

Private stimuli, covert responses, and private events: conceptual remarks.

In this article, I discuss the concepts of private stimuli, covert responses, and private events, emphasizing three aspects: the conditions under which private stimuli may acquire discriminative functions to verbal responses, the conditions of unobservability of covert responses, and the complexity of events or phenomena described as private. I argue that the role of private stimuli in the control of self-descriptive verbal responses is dependent on a relation (correlation or equivalence relation) with public stimuli, and that responses vary along a continuum of observability. These remarks on private stimuli and covert responses are introductory to an examination of the varying complexity of phenomena described as private. I argue that private events is a verbal response emitted under the control of phenomena of different degrees of complexity, and I interpret these phenomena, based on the principle of selection by consequences. I introduce the notion of inclusiveness to suggest that some phenomena related to privacy are less or more complex as they include relations of a phylogenetic, ontogenetic, and cultural origin.

O conceito de ansiedade na análise do comportamento

A tematica da ansiedade tem sido discutida na Psicologia enfocando os mais diferentes aspectos, mas uma definicao consensual esta longe de ser alcancada. A dificuldade se explica por diversas razoes, dentre elas a ausencia de uma referencia precisa a relacoes comportamentais. Na literatura da Analise do Comportamento, tambem sao encontradas divergencias. Algumas explicacoes enfatizam o papel das contingencias diretas como controladoras dos padroes de respostas ansiosas. Outras definicoes abordam aspectos verbais como possiveis fontes adicionais de controle. Nessas ultimas, as multiplas funcoes dos relatos autodescritivos dos individuos e o condicionamento semântico tem sido apontados como provaveis explicacoes. No presente trabalho, foram examinados 47 textos na literatura Analitico-Comportamental a fim de identificar os tipos de relacoes comportamentais que estao sendo sugeridas nos diferentes usos do conceito de ansiedade na Analise do Comportamento e a (in) compatibilidade dessas abordagens. O estudo tomou como referencia categorias de registro que se referem ao que cada autor veicula em termos de componentes respondentes, operantes nao verbais, operantes verbais e de perspectivas de intervencao. Uma analise mais qualitativa foi realizada com o uso de categorias analiticas que se reportam ao papel desempenhado pelas alteracoes fisiologicas na definicao de ansiedade, das relacoes operantes verbais e nao verbais envolvidas no fenomeno, e das implicacoes de cada uma dessas analises para a terapia verbal face a face. Este exame possibilitou a identificacao de variacoes nas definicoes quanto ao tipo de relacoes comportamentais envolvidas; ao arranjo de contingencias que produzem aquelas relacoes; as condicoes corporais produzidas concomitantemente pelas mesmas contingencias; as funcoes dessas condicoes corporais nas relacoes comportamentais e aos processos por meio dos quais estimulos verbais participam dessas relacoes. No entanto, essas variacoes na definicao podem ser entendidas enquanto analises complementares e nao incompativeis entre si. A explicacao dos fenomenos comportamentais com base em um continuum de complexidade pode apresentar-se como um modelo capaz de agregar essas variacoes, possibilitado um entendimento das redes de relacoes que podem participar de uma instância de ansiedade, bem como da funcao desempenhada por cada um de seus componentes.

A produção de conhecimento em psicologia: a análise do comportamento

O artigo discute a proposta behaviorista radical de constituicao da Psicologia como ciencia do comportamento, destacando tres conjuntos de questoes: a) a nocao de conhecimento com a qual opera, especialmente do ponto de vista da rejeicao de principios do positivismo logico e adocao de uma concepcao instrumental e relacional; b) uma interpretacao da Psicologia como campo de saber que articula conteudos filosoficos, cientificos e aplicados e c) o programa de investigacao dos fenomenos psicologicos orientado por um recorte externalista e por uma concepcao selecionista de causalidade. A elaboracao behaviorista radical e contrastada com concepcoes modernas acerca do homem, salientando-se seu alcance e seu carater critico e inovador na Psicologia e na cultura em geral.

Fronteiras entre análise do comportamento e fisiologia: Skinner e a temática dos eventos privados

O presente estudo examinou referencias de B. F. Skinner a fisiologia em textos sobre eventos privados, com o objetivo de identificar elementos para uma demarcacao mais precisa das relacoes entre analise do comportamento e fisiologia. As contribuicoes de Skinner naquela direcao foram categorizadas em seis temas: a) variaveis biologicas como constitutivas, mas nao definidoras do fenomeno comportamental privado; b) autonomia do recorte analitico-comportamental diante dos fatos biologicos/fisiologicos; c) limites de controle do comportamento por eventos internos/fisiologicos; d) comportamento privado como comportamento do organismo como um todo; e) distincao entre contato privilegiado e conhecimento privilegiado; e f) preservacao do recorte analitico-comportamental em situacao de analise aplicada do comportamento. As proposicoes correspondentes as categorias descritas sao apontadas como originais na definicao do campo de uma ciencia do comportamento e capazes de orientar coerentemente a demarcacao das fronteiras entre analise do comportamento e fisiologia enquanto disciplinas independentes e complementares.

Assertividade e Autocontrole: Interpretação Analítico-Comportamental

Questoes relacionadas a assertividade tem recebido atencao por parte de terapeutas comportamentais ha mais de tres decadas. E mais recente, porem, o esforco de terapeutas analitico-comportamentais para examinar problemas dessa ordem com os mesmos recursos conceituais e metodologicos empregados por seus pares da pesquisa basica e conceitual. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo oferecer uma interpretacao analitico-comportamental para padroes de comportamento assertivos, agressivos e passivos. Recuperamos algumas definicoes de assertividade/agressividade/passividade e examinamos os fenomenos correspondentes enquanto relacoes comportamentais; discutimos alguns aspectos da abordagem analitico-comportamental para o autocontrole; e sugerimos que as relacoes comportamentais definidas como assertividade/agressividade/passividade podem ser interpretadas enquanto instâncias de autocontrole ou impulsividade. A abordagem pode abrir novas perspectivas de investigacao clinica de habilidades sociais sob um enfoque analitico-comportamental.

Contributions of Contingencies in Modern Societies to ''Privacy'' in the Behavioral Relations of Cognition and Emotion

The aim of this paper is to examine specific features of modern individualistic societies that contribute to “emotions” and “cognitions” becoming a matter of privacy. Although some behavior analysts identify emotions and cognitions as “private events,” we argue with Skinner (1945) that cognitions and emotions are relations among events and that their origin is in public events in the contingencies of reinforcement maintained by other people. Guided by Elias (1939/ 1996), we suggest that the shift from feudal economies to market economies involved the increasing individualization of society’s members. This individualizing process includes the socially maintained contingencies that bring some verbal responses under control of private stimulation and reduce the magnitude of some verbal responses to a covert level. Behavioral relations in which either stimuli or responses (or both) cannot be observed by others set the stage for a concept of “privacy.” Changes in societal contingencies that gave rise to individualization and the attribution of privacy to cognitions and emotions are suggested to include the following: (a) increasing frequency of individual consequences that have no apparent or direct relevance to the group; (b) increasing numbers of concurrent contingencies and choice requirements; (c) conflicts between immediate and delayed consequences for the individual; and (d) conflicts between consequences for the individual and for the group.

Behaviorism, Interbehaviorism and the Boundaries of a Science of Behavior

In the history of behaviorist psychology, one controversial issue has been the independence of a behavioral science, and in particular its relation to biological sciences. In this article, the boundaries of a science of behavior are discussed in the light of B. F. Skinner’s and J. R. Kantor’s works, including some propositions concerning subjective or private experience. Important similarities in the two approaches are pointed out, especially with regard to their commitment to a relational (non-reductionist) view of behavioral phenomena. The possibility of behavior analysis treating privacy in a more consistent manner is also proposed, using Kantor’s conclusions on this issue. Lastly, it is suggested that Kantor’s work, carried out in the 1920s, predates important positions that tend to affirm the independence of a behavioral science, and that taking such positions into consideration could be relevant to understanding the criticisms directed at experimental analysis of behavior almost 50 years later.In the history of behaviorist psychology, one controversial issue has been the independence of a behavioral science, and in particular its relation to biological sciences. In this article, the boundaries of a science of behavior are discussed in the light of B. F. Skinner’s and J. R. Kantor’s works, including some propositions concerning subjective or private experience. Important similarities in the two approaches are pointed out, especially with regard to their commitment to a relational (non-reductionist) view of behavioral phenomena. The possibility of behavior analysis treating privacy in a more consistent manner is also proposed, using Kantor’s conclusions on this issue. Lastly, it is suggested that Kantor’s work, carried out in the 1920s, predates important positions that tend to affirm the independence of a behavioral science, and that taking such positions into consideration could be relevant to understanding the criticisms directed at experimental analysis of behavior almost 50 years later.

A Psicologia como campo de conhecimento e como profissão de ajuda

Psychology as a field of knowledge and a helping profession. The present article focuses an interpretation of psychology according to which philosophical/reflexive, empirical, and applied contents account for an original configuration of the discipline. The paper considers some historical facts that ground such configuration, which should be considered in order to achieve a better understanding of the heterogeneity of objects, methods, goals and philosophical commitments of the diverse psychological approaches. Some implications of the model to an appreciation of (academic and non academic) doings in contemporary psychology are then discussed. It is argued that the success of each psychological approach depends, to a certain extent, on its recognition of the multifold character of the psychological field and its capacity to give consistent and integrated responses to the different social demands that give rise to the field.

The Selection of Cultural Units by Non-Contingent Cultural Events

We assessed the effects of non-contingent cultural events on the recurrence of the coordinated behaviors of groups of individuals (interlocking behavioral contingencies—IBCs). Laboratory microcultures (three participants each) performed an experimental task, which consisted of selecting rows of a matrix. After each 20 cycles of sequences of choices of rows, a new participant replaced an old one, thus creating a “generational shift .” Individual consequences (plastic coins exchangeable for money) were contingent on the choice of odd-numbered rows. Cultural events (printed stamps exchangeable for school supplies to be donated) occurred after the three participants had made their choices, but these events were not contingent on any particular sequence of rows (IBCs, and the aggregate product produced). During the first 60 cycles, the cultural events occurred after 80% of the cycles, independently of the aggregate product. Next, there was a sequence of 30 cycles in which no cultural event occurred. Finally, the experimental conditions returned to the initial non-contingent occurrence of cultural events. The results show the strengthening of operant individual behaviors, as well as of IBCs in the non-contingent conditions. Cultural transmission was also observed. We discuss the parallel between the observed recurrence of IBCs and previous studies on superstitious individual behavior. The results add to the acknowledged selection of cultural practices by long-term contingent products the possible selection of “superstitious” cultural practices by non-contingent cultural events. Such a possibility should be further investigated, with original or similar experimental designs.

Graduate and Undergraduate Studies: Neighbors Without Affinity?

This article presents two sets of information of historical interest for Psychology: regarding the context in which the profession of psychologist was regulated, and the graduate level formation. These sets of information are used to discuss the difficulty in promoting de facto articulation between undergraduate and graduate level programs. This is an especially curious difficulty, as, since the initial phase of the organization of the Brazilian Graduate Program, the need to consider its integration with the undergraduate formation has always been highlighted. Nevertheless, some difficulties still persist with respect to this integration. Some proposals of activities that could provide articulation between the different levels of formation are presented for debate, both in the sphere of teaching and supervision, as well as in the context of research, with related activities that can serve the same purpose also being mentioned.O texto apresenta dois conjuntos de informacoes de interesse historico para a Psicologia: sobre o contexto no qual foi regulamentada a profi ssao de psicologo e sobre a formacao em nivel de pos-graduacao. Tais informacoes sao utilizadas para discutir a difi culdade de promover articulacao de fato entre a formacao em nivel de graduacao e a pos-graduacao. Tratase de difi culdade especialmente curiosa, pois desde a fase inicial da organizacao da pos-graduacao brasileira, a necessidade de considerar sua integracao com a formacao em nivel de graduacao foi sempre ressaltada. Ainda assim, persistem difi culdades relativas a essa integracao. Algumas proposicoes de atividades que podem ensejar articulacoes entre os diferentes niveis de formacao sao apresentadas para o debate, tanto na esfera do ensino e da orientacao como no âmbito da pesquisa, havendo mencao, tambem, a atividades correlatas que podem servir ao mesmo objetivo.