Eric M. Phillips

Single-Molecule Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Crystal Violet Isotopologues: Theory and Experiment

Single-molecule surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SMSERS) of crystal violet (CV) has been reported since 1997, yet others have offered alternative explanations that do not necessarily imply SMSERS. Recently, the isotopologue approach, a statistically significant method to establish SMSERS, has been implemented for members of the rhodamine dye family. We provide the first demonstration of SMSERS of a triphenylmethane dye using the isotopologue approach. Two isotopologues of CV are employed to create chemically identical yet vibrationally distinct probe molecules. Experimental spectra were compared extensively with computational simulations to assign changes in mode frequencies upon deuteration. More than 90 silver nanoparticle clusters dosed with a 50:50 mixture of CV isotopologues were spectroscopically characterized, and the vibrational signature of only deuterated or undeuterated CV was observed 79 times, demonstrating that the isotopologue approach for proving SMSERS is applicable to both the CV and the rhodamine systems. The use of CV, a minimally fluorescent dye, allowed direct evaluation of enhancement factors (EF), which are reported herein. Through experiment and theory, we show that molecular electronic resonance Raman (RR) and surface-enhanced Raman effects combine synergistically in SMSERS. Excluding RR effects, the EF(SERS) is ∼10(9). Variations and relationships between substrate morphology and optical properties are further characterized by correlated SMSERS-localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR)-high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) studies. We did not observe SMSERS from individual nanoparticles; further, SMSERS-supporting dimers are heterodimers of two disparately sized particles, with no subnanometer gaps. We present the largest collection to date of HRTEM images of SMSERS-supporting nanoparticle assemblies.

N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Catalyzed Conjugate Additions of Alcohols

An efficient intermolecular conjugate addition of alcohols to activated alkenes catalyzed by N-heterocyclic carbenes has been developed. With 5 mol % of the free carbene derived from IMes·HCl, unsaturated ketones and esters are competent substrates, and a variety of primary and secondary alcohols can be employed as the nucleophile. No oligomerization is observed under these mild conditions for effective hydroalkoxylation. In addition to reactions with activated alkenes, IMes catalyzes the formation of vinyl ethers through the 1,4-addition of alcohols to ynones and promotes tandem conjugate addition/Michael cascade reactions. Preliminary data support a Brønsted base mechanism with the free carbene.

Highly Diastereo- and Enantioselective Additions of Homoenolates to Nitrones Catalyzed by N-Heterocyclic Carbenes

The diastereo- and enantioselective addition of N-heterocyclic carbene-generated homoenolates to nitrones is reported. This formal [3 + 3] addition of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes and nitrones generates unusual morpholinone heterocycles which are converted into γ-hydroxy amino esters by addition of methanol to the reaction. The use of a chiral N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) as the catalyst provides the amino esters in high diastereoselectivity (up to 20:1 dr) and enantioselectivity (up to 94%). The process accommodates α,β-unsaturated aldehydes with β-alkyl and β-aryl substituents. The γ-hydroxy amino esters can be converted to optically enriched γ-lactams by a two-step procedure involving mild reduction of the N−O bond and acid-catalyzed amide formation.

N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Catalyzed Enantioselective Mannich Reactions with α-Aryloxyacetaldehydes

N-Heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) catalyze a new Mannich-type reaction to form beta-amino acid derivatives in high yield and enantioselectivity. The reaction is initiated by the addition of an NHC to an alpha-aryloxyaldehyde followed by elimination of a phenoxide anion which generates an enol/enolate. A Mannich addition to a tosylimine proceeds with excellent control over enantioselectivity. In a new carbene catalysis concept, catalyst regeneration is promoted by return, or rebound, and acylation of the phenoxide group which served as the activating component in the first step of the catalytic cycle. The activated ester products formed in situ are manipulated to form a variety of useful compounds including beta-amino acids, beta-amino amides, and peptides.

NHC-Catalyzed Reactions of Aryloxyacetaldehydes: A Domino Elimination/Conjugate Addition/Acylation Process for the Synthesis of Substituted Coumarins

N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) catalyze a domino Michael addition/acylation reaction to form 3,4-dihydrocoumarins. The reaction proceeds through addition of the NHC to an aryloxyaldehyde followed by elimination of a phenoxide leaving group, generating an enol intermediate. This transient nucleophile generated in situ performs a 1,4-addition onto a conjugate acceptor, and the carbene catalyst is regenerated upon acylation of the phenoxide anion resulting in formation of 3,4-dihydrocoumarins.

Catalytic Dynamic Kinetic Resolutions with N‐Heterocyclic Carbenes: Asymmetric Synthesis of Highly Substituted β‐Lactones

New DKR type: An N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-catalyzed dynamic kinetic resolution of racemic α-substituted β-keto esters has been developed. This method relies on the epimerization of an NHC-enol intermediate before subsequent aldol/acylation events. Highly substituted β-lactones are produced in good yield with good to excellent selectivities (see scheme).

Catalytic enantioselective total syntheses of bakkenolides I, J, and S: application of a carbene-catalyzed desymmetrization.

A general strategy for the catalytic asymmetric syntheses of the bakkenolides is reported. The key bond-forming step involves an N-heterocyclic carbene catalyzed desymmetrization of a 1,3-diketone to form three new bonds in one step with excellent enantio- and diastereoselectivity. This intramolecular reaction allows direct access to the hydrindane core of the bakkenolide family and enables a facile synthesis of these natural products.