Eva Mann

Frailty: an emerging concept for general practice

Ageing of the population in western societies and the rising costs of health and social care are refocusing health policy on health promotion and disability prevention among older people. However, efforts to identify at-risk groups of older people and to alter the trajectory of avoidable problems associated with ageing by early intervention or multidisciplinary case management have been largely unsuccessful. This paper argues that this failure arises from the dominance in primary care of a managerial perspective on health care for older people, and proposes instead the adoption of a clinical paradigm based on the concept of frailty. Frailty, in its simplest definition, is vulnerability to adverse outcomes. It is a dynamic concept that is different from disability and easy to overlook, but also easy to identify using heuristics (rules of thumb) and to measure using simple scales. Conceptually, frailty fits well with the biopsychosocial model of general practice, offers practitioners useful tools for patient care, and provides commissioners of health care with a clinical focus for targeting resources at an ageing population.

Potentially inappropriate medication in geriatric patients: the Austrian consensus panel list

ZusammenfassungHINTERGRUND: Bei geriatrischen Patienten stellen inadäquate Medikamentenverordnungen einen wichtigen Risikofaktor für unerwünschte Arzneimittelereignisse dar. Sie führen in diesem Zusammenhang zu einer Zunahme von Spitalszuweisungen, welche die Gesundheitskosten belasten. Die Entwicklung Konsensus-basierter Listen von Medikamenten, die bei geriatrischen Patienten im Allgemeinen vermieden werden sollten, wird als eine mögliche Strategie angesehen, um die Qualität der medikamentösen Behandlung zu steigern. ZIEL: Erstellung einer, den österreichischen Verschreibungsgewohnheiten und der Marktsituation angepassten, Konsensus-basierten Liste von Arzneimitteln, deren Verordnung potentiell inadäquat für geriatrische Patienten ist, und die deshalb vermieden werden sollten. METHODE: Als Evaluierungsmethode wurde ein zwei-stufiger Delphi Prozess gewählt, an dem acht Experten mit Erfahrung in der medikamentösen Therapie geriatrischer Patienten teilnahmen. In der ersten Runde bewerteten die Experten Medikamente einer vorgegebenen Liste anhand einer 5-stufigen Likert Skala von sicher potentiell unangemessen bis sicher nicht potentiell unangemessen. Alle Medikamente, für deren Bewertung die obere Grenze des 95 % Konfidenzintervalls unter 3,0 lag, wurden als potentiell unangemessen klassifiziert. Medikamente, deren 95 % KI den Wert 3,0 umschloss, wurden in der zweiten Runde wieder anhand einer 5-stufigen Likert Skala bewertet, ebenso wie die in der ersten Runde neu vorgeschlagenen Medikamente. Nach Analyse der Ergebnisse der zweiten Runde wurde die finale Liste erstellt. RESULTATE: Von den vorgegebenen 102 Medikamenten wurden 61 Medikamente (59,2 %) bereits in der ersten Runde als potentiell unangemessen für ältere Menschen eingestuft. Sechs Medikamente, die in der zweiten Runde erneut evaluiert wurden, und sechs in der ersten Runde neu vorgeschlagene Medikamente wurden in der zweiten Runde als potentiell inadäquat klassifiziert. Die finale Liste enthält 73 Arzneimittel, die aufgrund eines ungünstigen Nutzen/Risiko Profils oder aufgrund fraglicher Wirksamkeit bei geriatrischen Patienten nicht verordnet werden sollten. SCHLUSSFOLGERUNG: Die Österreichische PIM Liste kann für klinisch tätige Ärzte ein in der Praxis anwendbares Instrument darstellen, das zu einer Verbesserung der Qualität von Medikamentenverordnungen bei älteren Patienten beiträgt. Studien zur Validierung der PIM-Liste stehen in Österreich ebenso wie in anderen Ländern mit bereits veröffentlichten PIM-Listen noch aus.SummaryBACKGROUND: The practice of inappropriate medication and drug prescription is a major risk factor for adverse drug reactions in geriatric patients and increases the individual, as well as overall, rates of hospital admissions, resulting in increased health care expenditures. A consensus-based list of drugs, generally to be avoided in geriatric patients, is a practical tool to possibly improve the quality of prescribing. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to develop a consensus-based list of potentially inappropriate medications (PIM) for geriatric patients in Austria. Local market characteristics and documented prescribing regimens were considered in detail. METHODS: A two-round Delphi process involving eight experts in the field of geriatric medicine was undertaken to create a list of potentially inappropriate medications. Using a 5-point Likert scale (from strong agreement to strong disagreement), mean ratings from the experts were evaluated for each drug selected in the first round. The participants were first asked to comment on the potential inappropriateness of a preliminary list of drugs, and to propose alternate substances missing in the previous questionnaire for a second rating process. All drugs whose upper limit of the 95% CI was less than 3.0 were classified as potentially inappropriate. Drugs with a 95% CI enclosing 3.0 entered a second rating by the experts, in addition to other substances suggested during the first questionnaire. Drugs in the second rating were evaluated in comparable fashion to the first one. The final list was synthesized from the results in both rounds. RESULTS: Out of a preliminary list of 102 drugs, 61 drugs (59.2%) were classified as potentially inappropriate for geriatric persons in the first Delphi- round. In the second rating, six drugs that were reevaluated, and six drugs proposed additionally, were rated as potentially inappropriate. The final list contains 73 drugs to be avoided in older patients because of an unfavorable benefit/risk profile and/or unproven effectiveness. The list also contains suggestions for therapeutic alternatives and information about pharmacological and pharmacokinetic characteristics of all drugs judged as potentially inappropriate. CONCLUSION: The current Austrian list of potentially inappropriate medications may be a helpful tool for clinicians to increase the quality of prescribing in older patients. Like all explicit lists previously published, its validity needs to be proven in validation studies.

Hip fracture incidence in the elderly in Austria: An epidemiological study covering the years 1994 to 2006

BackgroundHip fractures in the elderly are a major public health burden. Data concerning secular trends of hip fracture incidence show divergent results for age, sex and regions. In Austria, the hip fracture incidence in the elderly population and trends have not been analysed yet.MethodsHip fractures in the population of 50 years and above were identified from 1994 to 2006 using the national hospital discharge register. Crude incidences (IR) per 100,000 person years and standardised incidences related to the European population 2006 were analysed. Estimate of age-sex-adjusted changes was determined using Poisson regression (incidence rate ratios, IRRs).ResultsThe number of hospital admissions due to hip fracture increased from a total number of 11,694 in 1994 to 15,987 in 2006. Crude incidences rates (IR) per 100.000 for men increased from 244.3 (95% confidence interval (CI) 234.8 to 253.7) in 1994 to IR 330.8 (95% CI 320.8 to 340.9) in 2006 and for women from 637.3 (95% CI 624.2 to 650.4) in 1994 to IR 758.7 (95% CI 745.0 to 772.4) in 2006. After adjustment for age and sex the annual hip fracture incidence increase was only small but statistically significant (IRR per year 1.01, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.01, p < 0.01). Change of IRR over the 12 years study period was 13%. It was significantly higher for men (IRR over 12 years 1.21, 95% CI 1.16 to 1.27) than for women (IRR over 12 years 1.10, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.14) (interaction: p = 0.03).ConclusionIn contrast to findings in other countries there is no levelling-off or downward trend of hip fracture incidence from 1994 to 2006 in the Austrian elderly population. Further investigations should aim to evaluate the underlying causes in order to plan effective hip fracture reduction programmes.

Impact of strategies to reduce polypharmacy on clinically relevant endpoints: a systematic review and meta-analysis

AIM The aim of the present study was to explore the impact of strategies to reduce polypharmacy on mortality, hospitalization and change in number of drugs. METHODS Systematic review and meta-analysis: a systematic literature search targeting patients ≥65 years with polypharmacy (≥4 drugs), focusing on patient-relevant outcome measures, was conducted. We included controlled studies aiming to reduce polypharmacy. Two reviewers independently assessed studies for eligibility, extracted data and evaluated study quality. RESULTS Twenty-five studies, including 10 980 participants, were included, comprising 21 randomized controlled trials and four nonrandomized controlled trials. The majority of the included studies aimed at improving quality or the appropriateness of prescribing by eliminating inappropriate and non-evidence-based drugs. These strategies to reduce polypharmacy had no effect on all-cause mortality (odds ratio 1.02; 95% confidence interval 0.84, 1.23). Only single studies found improvements, in terms of reducing the number of hospital admissions, in favour of the intervention group. At baseline, patients were taking, on average, 7.4 drugs in both the intervention and the control groups. At follow-up, the weighted mean number of drugs was reduced (-0.2) in the intervention group but increased (+0.2) in controls. CONCLUSIONS There is no convincing evidence that the strategies assessed in the present review are effective in reducing polypharmacy or have an impact on clinically relevant endpoints. Interventions are complex; it is still unclear how best to organize and implement them to achieve a reduction in inappropriate polypharmacy. There is therefore a need to develop more effective strategies to reduce inappropriate polypharmacy and to test them in large, pragmatic randomized controlled trials on effectiveness and feasibility.

Family physicians need easy instruments for frailty

SIR—This is with reference to the article ‘Development of an easy prognostic score for frailty outcomes in the aged’ written by G. Ravaglia, P. Forti, A. Lucicesare, N. Pisacane, E. Rietti, C. Patterson[1]. As general practitioners involved in research about primary care for older people we agree that frailty is an emerging concept with important clinical consequences. Ravaglia et al. describe ‘an easy …

Information technology interventions to improve medication safety in primary care: a systematic review

PURPOSE Improving medication safety has become a major topic in all clinical settings. Information technology (IT) can play an important role to prevent adverse drug events (ADEs), but data on the effectiveness of IT interventions are controversial. The objective of this paper is to provide a systematic review about the effects of IT interventions on medication safety in primary care. DATA SOURCES PubMed, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, EMBASE, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, handsearching reference lists from full-text articles. STUDY SELECTION Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), if interventions based on IT, performed in primary care and outcomes reported on medication safety. Data extraction Study characteristics and outcome data independently extracted by two reviewers. Disagreement resolved by discussion with a third reviewer. RESULTS OF DATA SYNTHESIS Out of 3918 studies retrieved, 10 RCTs met the inclusion criteria. Of the six studies evaluating computerized provider order entry (CPOE) with clinical decision support (CDS) only 3 studies effectively reduced unsafe prescribing. Both pharmacist-led IT interventions decreased the prescription of potentially inappropriate medication or unsafe prescribing in pregnancy. No reduction of ADEs was achieved by a web program or a TeleWatch system intervention. CONCLUSION Only 5 of 10 RCTs revealed a reduction of medication errors. CPOE with CDS was effective if targeted at a limited number of potentially inappropriate medications. The positive results of pharmacist-led IT interventions indicate that IT interventions with inter-professional communication appear to be effective. The unequivocal results of the included RCTs stress the necessity of rigorous evaluation prior to large-scale implementation.

Effectiveness of non-cardiac preoperative testing in non-cardiac elective surgery: a systematic review

Elective surgery is usually preceded by preoperative diagnostics to minimize risk. The results are assumed to elicit preventive measures or even cancellation of surgery. Moreover, physicians perform preoperative tests as a baseline to detect subsequent changes. This systematic review aims to explore whether preoperative testing leads to changes in management or reduces perioperative mortality or morbidity in unselected patients undergoing elective, non-cardiac surgery. We systematically searched all relevant databases from January 2001 to February 2011 for studies investigating the relationship between preoperative diagnostics and perioperative outcome. Our methodology was based on the manual of the Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Health Technology Assessment, the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN) handbook, and the PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews. One hundred and one of the 25 281 publications retrieved met our inclusion criteria. Three test grid studies used a randomized controlled design and 98 studies used an observational design. The test grid studies show that in cataract surgery and ambulatory surgery, there are no significant differences between patients with indicated preoperative testing and no testing regarding perioperative outcome. The observational studies do not provide valid evidence that preoperative testing is beneficial in healthy adults undergoing non-cardiac surgery. There is no evidence derived from high-quality studies that supports routine preoperative testing in healthy adults undergoing non-cardiac surgery. Testing according to pathological findings in a patients medical history or physical examination seems justified, although the evidence is scarce. High-quality studies, especially large randomized controlled trials, are needed to explore the effectiveness of indicated preoperative testing.

Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment (CGA) in general practice: Results from a pilot study in Vorarlberg, Austria

BackgroundMost comprehensive geriatric assessment (CGA) programs refer to hospital-based settings. However the body of geriatric healthcare is provided by general practitioners in their office. Structured geriatric problem detection by means of assessment instruments is crucial for efficient geriatric care giving in the community.MethodsWe developed and pilot tested a German language geriatric assessment instrument adapted for general practice. Nine general practices in a rural region of Austria participated in this cross-sectional study and consecutively enrolled 115 persons aged over 75 years. The prevalence of specific geriatric problems was assessed, as well as the frequency of initiated procedures following positive and negative tests. Whether findings were new to the physician was studied exemplarily for the items visual and hearing impairment and depression. The acceptability was recorded by means of self-administered questionnaires.ResultsOn average, each patient reported 6.4 of 14 possible geriatric problems and further consequences resulted in 43.7% (27.5% to 59.8%) of each problem.The items with either the highest prevalence and/or the highest number of initiated actions by the GPs were osteoporosis risk, urinary incontinence, decreased hearing acuity, missing pneumococcal vaccination and fall risk. Visual impairment was newly detected in only 18% whereas hearing impairment and depression was new to the physician in 74.1% and 76.5%, respectively.A substantial number of interventions were initiated not only following positive tests (43.7% per item; 95% CI 27.5% to 59.8%), but also as a consequence of negative test results (11.3% per item; 95% CI 1.7% to 20.9%).The mean time expenditure to accomplish the assessment was 31 minutes (SD 10 min). Patients (89%) and all physicians confirmed the CGA to provide new information in general on the patients health status. All physicians judged the CGA to be feasible in everyday practice.ConclusionThis adapted CGA was feasible and well accepted in the general practice sample. High frequencies of geriatric problems were detected prompting high numbers of problem-solving initiatives. But a substantial number of actions of the physicians following negative tests point to the risks of too aggressive treatment of elderly patients with possibly subsequent negative effects.

Prevalence and associations of potentially inappropriate prescriptions in Austrian nursing home residents: secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study

SummaryBackgroundPotentially inappropriate prescriptions (PIP) are an important cause of adverse medication-related events and increases morbidity, hospitalization, and health care costs, especially in nursing home residents. However, little is known about the associations between PIP and residents’ characteristics.ObjectiveThe aim of our study was to analyse the prevalence and associations of PIP with residents’ and facilities’ characteristics.MethodsWe performed a secondary analysis of a cross-sectional study with 48 out of 50 eligible nursing homes and 1,844 out of 2,005 eligible residents in a defined rural-urban area in Austria. The Austrian list of potentially inappropriate medications was applied for the evaluation of inappropriate prescribing. Cluster-adjusted multiple regression analysis was used to investigate institutional and residents’ characteristics associated with PIP.ResultsMean cluster-adjusted prevalence of residents with at least one PIP was 70.3 % (95 % CI 67.2–73.4). The number of residents with at least one psychotropic PIP was 1.014 (55 %). The most often prescribed PIP were Prothipendyl (25.9 % residents), Lorazepam (14.5 %) and Diclofenac (6.1 %). Multiple regression analysis showed an inverse association of PIP with cognitive impairment and significant positive associations with permanent restlessness and permanent negative attitude. The associations of PIP with age and male gender were inconsistent. No significant associations were found for PIP and the ratio of staff nurses to residents.ConclusionsOur study results confirm that PIP is highly prevalent in the nursing home population. These results urgently call for effective interventions. Initiatives and successful interventions performed in other countries could serve as examples for safer prescribing in residents in Austria.ZusammenfassungGrundlagenPotentiell unangemessene Medikamentenverordnungen (potentially inappropriate prescriptions = „PIP“) sind eine bedeutende Ursache von unerwünschten Arzneimittel-assoziierten Wirkungen und führen zu vermehrten Kosten im Gesundheitssystem und vor allem bei Pflegeheimbewohnern zu erhöhter Morbidität und Spitalseinweisungen.Wenig ist bisher bekannt über die Zusammenhänge zwischen PIP und den Charakteristika von Pflegeheimbewohnern.ZielZiel unserer Studie war es, die Prävalenz und Assoziationen von PIP mit den Charakteristika der Bewohner und Pflegeheime zu analysieren.MethodikWir führten eine Sekundäranalyse einer Querschnittsstudie mit 48 von 50 möglichen Pflegeheimen und 1844 von 2005 möglichen Bewohnern eines definierten Bundeslandes in Österreich durch. Die Evaluierung der unangemessenen Verordnungen erfolgte anhand der „Österreichischen Liste der potentiell unangemessenen Arzneimittel“.Cluster-adjustierte multivariate Regressionsanalyse wurde angewandt, um die Assoziationen von PIP mit Charakteristika der Institutionen und Bewohner auszuwerten.ErgebnisseDie mittlere cluster-adjustierte Häufigkeit von Heimbewohnern mit mindestens einem PIP war 70,3 % (95 % CI 67,2–73,4). Die Anzahl der Bewohner mit mindestens einer psychotropen PIP war 1,014 (55 %). Die häufigsten PIP waren Prothipendyl (25,9 % der Bewohner), Lorazepam (14,5 %) und Diclofenac (6,1 %). Multivariate Regressionsanalyse zeigte eine inverse Assoziation von PIP mit kognitiver Einschränkung und signifikant positive Assoziationen mit ständiger Unruhe und ständigem negativem Verhalten der Bewohner.Die Assoziationen von PIP mit Alter und männlichem Geschlecht zeigten uneinheitliche Resultate. Keine signifikanten Assoziationen wurden zwischen PIP und dem Betreuungsverhältnis zwischen Pflegepersonen und Heimbewohnern gefunden.SchlussfolgerungenUnsere Studienresultate bestätigen, dass PIP bei Pflegeheimbewohnern weit verbreitet ist und zeigen, dass dringend effektive Strategien zur Reduktion von PIPs in Österreich notwendig sind. In anderen Ländern bereits durchgeführte erfolgreiche Initiativen und Interventionen könnten als Beispiele für Österreich herangezogen werden.

Comparison of hip fracture incidence and trends between Germany and Austria 1995-2004: an epidemiological study.

BackgroundSeveral studies evaluated variations in hip fracture incidences, as well as trends of the hip fracture incidences. Comparisons of trends are lacking so far. We compared the incidence rates and, in particular, its trends between Austria and Germany 1995 to 2004 analysing national hospital discharge diagnosis register data.MethodsAnnual frequencies of hip fractures and corresponding incidences per 100,000 person years were estimated, overall and stratified for sex and age, assuming Poisson distribution. Multiple Poisson regression models including country and calendar year, age and sex were used to analyse differences in incidence and trend. The difference of annual changes between the two countries was explored using an interaction term (calender year * country).ResultsOverall, the increase of hip fracture risk was 1.31 fold higher (95% CI 1.29-1.34) in Austria compared to Germany, adjusted for age, sex, and calendar year. The risk increase was comparable for both sexes (males: RR 1.35 (1.32-1.37), females: RR 1.31 (1.29-1.33)). Hip fracture trend from 1995 to 2004 indicates an increase in both countries without a statistically significant difference between Austria and Germany (interaction term: p = 0.67).ConclusionIn this study comparing hip fracture incidences and its trend using pooled data, the incidence in Austria was 30% higher compared to its neighbouring country Germany. For both countries a similar increasing trend of hip fracture incidence over the 10-year study period was calculated. The results need confirmation by other studies.