Evan A. Scott

Dendritic cell activation and T cell priming with adjuvant- and antigen-loaded oxidation-sensitive polymersomes

While current subunit vaccines successfully induce humoral immune responses, a need exists for vaccine strategies to elicit strong cell-mediated immunity to address diseases such as cancer and chronic viral infection. Polymersomes are stable vesicles composed of self-assembling block copolymers with tunable degradation properties allowing delivery of both hydrophilic (within vesicle interior) or hydrophobic (within vesicle membrane) payload molecules. Here we apply oxidation-sensitive nanoscale polymersomes for both antigen and adjuvant delivery to dendritic cell (DC) endosomes. Calcein-loaded polymersomes were observed to release their payload initially in multiple DC endosomal compartments and subsequently within the cytosol. With either the Toll-like receptor agonists gardiquimod or R848 as payloads within the polymersomes, release resulted in DC activation, as indicated by induction of inflammatory cytokine expression and upregulation of DC maturation surface markers: for example, the ability of gardiquimod to induce IL-6 and IL-12 cytokine expression by DCs was enhanced 10-fold when loaded within polymersomes. With the model antigen ovalbumin as a payload, release resulted in CD8(+) T cell cross-priming by promoting protein antigen cross-presentation through MHC I, as indicated by activation of OT-I CD8(+) T cells. Our results demonstrate that oxidation-sensitive polymersomes can function as a vaccine delivery platform for inducing cell-mediated antigen-specific immune responses.

Protein adsorption and cell adhesion on nanoscale bioactive coatings formed from poly(ethylene glycol) and albumin microgels

Late-term thrombosis on drug-eluting stents is an emerging problem that might be addressed using extremely thin, biologically active hydrogel coatings. We report a dip-coating strategy to covalently link poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) to substrates, producing coatings with approximately <100 nm thickness. Gelation of PEG-octavinylsulfone with amines in either bovine serum albumin (BSA) or PEG-octaamine was monitored by dynamic light scattering (DLS), revealing the presence of microgels before macrogelation. NMR also revealed extremely high end-group conversions prior to macrogelation, consistent with the formation of highly crosslinked microgels and deviation from Flory-Stockmayer theory. Before macrogelation, the reacting solutions were diluted and incubated with nucleophile-functionalized surfaces. Using optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy (OWLS) and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D), we identified a highly hydrated, protein-resistant layer with a thickness of approximately 75 nm. Atomic force microscopy in buffered water revealed the presence of coalesced spheres of various sizes but with diameters less than about 100 nm. Microgel-coated glass or poly(ethylene terephthalate) exhibited reduced protein adsorption and cell adhesion. Cellular interactions with the surface could be controlled by using different proteins to cap unreacted vinylsulfone groups within the coating.

Modular scaffolds assembled around living cells using poly(ethylene glycol) microspheres with macroporation via a non-cytotoxic porogen.

Modular, bioactive, macroporous scaffolds were formed by crosslinking poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) microspheres around living cells. Hydrogel microspheres were produced from reactive PEG derivatives in aqueous sodium sulfate solutions without the use of surfactants or copolymers. Microspheres were formed following thermally induced phase separation if the gel point was reached prior to extensive coarsening of the PEG-rich domains. Three types of PEG microspheres with different functionalities were used to form scaffolds: one type provided mechanical support, the second type provided controlled delivery of the angiogenesis-promoting molecule, sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) and the third type served as a slowly dissolving non-cytotoxic porogen. Scaffolds were formed by centrifuging microspheres in the presence of HepG2 hepatoma cells, resulting in a homogenous distribution of cells. During overnight incubation at 37 degrees C, the microspheres reacted with serum proteins in cell culture medium to stabilize the scaffolds. Within 2 days in culture, macropores formed due to the dissolution of the porogenic PEG microspheres, without affecting cell viability. Gradients in porosity were produced by varying the buoyancy of the porogenic microspheres. Conjugated RGD cell adhesion peptides and the delivery of S1P promoted endothelial cell infiltration through macropores in the scaffolds. The scaffolds presented here differ from previous hydrogel scaffolds in that: (i) cells are not encapsulated in hydrogel; (ii) macropores form in the presence of cells; and (iii) scaffold properties are controlled by the modular assembly of different microspheres that perform distinct functions.

Tunable T cell immunity towards a protein antigen using polymersomes vs. solid-core nanoparticles

Using poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) as components of a nanocarrier platform, we sought to compare immune responses induced by PPS-bl-PEG polymersomes (PSs; watery-core structures, with antigen incorporated within the PSs) and PEG-stabilized PPS nanoparticles (NPs; solid-core structures, with antigen conjugated upon the NP surface). We have previously shown strong CD8(+) T cell responses to antigen conjugated to NPs via a disulfide link, and here we investigated the extent to which antigen incorporated within oxidatively-sensitive PSs could induce CD4(+) or CD8(+) T cell responses. C57BL/6 mice were subcutaneously immunized with free ovalbumin (OVA) as a model antigen, or equivalent doses of OVA-loaded into PSs, conjugated onto NPs, or given as a mixture of the two. Free CpG was used as an adjuvant. Antigen-loaded PSs induced enhanced frequencies of antigen-specific CD4(+) T cells in the spleen, lymph nodes and lungs as compared to the NP formulation, whereas antigen-conjugated NPs induced stronger CD8(+) T cell responses. Co-administration of both PSs and NPs elicited T cell immunity characteristic of the two nanocarriers at the same time, i.e. both strong CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cell responses. These results have important implications for particulate-based vaccine design and highlight the potential of using different antigen-delivery systems for the induction of both T helper and cytotoxic T lymphocyte immune responses.

Factors affecting size and swelling of poly(ethylene glycol) microspheres formed in aqueous sodium sulfate solutions without surfactants

The LCST behavior of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) in aqueous sodium sulfate solutions was exploited to fabricate microspheres without the use of other monomers, polymers, surfactants or organic solvents. Reactive PEG derivatives underwent thermally induced phase separation to produce spherical PEG-rich domains that coarsened in size pending gelation, resulting in stable hydrogel microspheres between approximately 1 and 100 microns in size. The time required to reach the gel point during the coarsening process and the extent of crosslinking after gelation both affected the final microsphere size and swelling ratio. The gel point could be varied by pre-reaction of the PEG derivatives below the cloud point, or by controlling pH and temperature above the cloud point. Pre-reaction brought the PEG derivatives closer to the gel point prior to phase separation, while the pH and temperature influenced the rate of reaction. Dynamic light scattering indicated a percolation-to-cluster transition about 3-5 min following phase separation. The mean radius of PEG-rich droplets subsequently increased with time to the 1/4th power until gelation. PEG microspheres produced by these methods with controlled sizes and densities may be useful for the production of modular scaffolds for tissue engineering.

Toll-like receptor 8 agonist nanoparticles mimic immunomodulating effects of the live BCG vaccine and enhance neonatal innate and adaptive immune responses

Background Newborns display distinct immune responses, leaving them vulnerable to infections and impairing immunization. Targeting newborn dendritic cells (DCs), which integrate vaccine signals into adaptive immune responses, might enable development of age‐specific vaccine formulations to overcome suboptimal immunization. Objective Small‐molecule imidazoquinoline Toll‐like receptor (TLR) 8 agonists robustly activate newborn DCs but can result in reactogenicity when delivered in soluble form. We used rational engineering and age‐ and species‐specific modeling to construct and characterize polymer nanocarriers encapsulating a TLR8 agonist, allowing direct intracellular release after selective uptake by DCs. Methods Chemically similar but morphologically distinct nanocarriers comprised of amphiphilic block copolymers were engineered for targeted uptake by murine DCs in vivo, and a range of TLR8 agonist–encapsulating polymersome formulations were then synthesized. Novel 96‐well in vitro assays using neonatal human monocyte‐derived DCs and humanized TLR8 mouse bone marrow–derived DCs enabled benchmarking of the TLR8 agonist–encapsulating polymersome formulations against conventional adjuvants and licensed vaccines, including live attenuated BCG vaccine. Immunogenicity of the TLR8 agonist adjuvanted antigen 85B (Ag85B)/peptide 25–loaded BCG‐mimicking nanoparticle formulation was evaluated in vivo by using humanized TLR8 neonatal mice. Results Although alum‐adjuvanted vaccines induced modest costimulatory molecule expression, limited TH‐polarizing cytokine production, and significant cell death, BCG induced a robust adult‐like maturation profile of neonatal DCs. Remarkably, TLR8 agonist polymersomes induced not only newborn DC maturation profiles similar to those induced by BCG but also stronger IL‐12p70 production. On subcutaneous injection to neonatal mice, the TLR8 agonist–adjuvanted Ag85B peptide 25 formulation was comparable with BCG in inducing Ag85B‐specific CD4+ T‐cell numbers. Conclusion TLR8 agonist–encapsulating polymersomes hold substantial potential for early‐life immunization against intracellular pathogens. Overall, our study represents a novel approach for rational design of early‐life vaccines. Graphical abstract Figure. No Caption available.

Tailoring Nanostructure Morphology for Enhanced Targeting of Dendritic Cells in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, a leading cause of heart disease, results from chronic vascular inflammation that is driven by diverse immune cell populations. Nanomaterials may function as powerful platforms for diagnostic imaging and controlled delivery of therapeutics to inflammatory cells in atherosclerosis, but efficacy is limited by nonspecific uptake by cells of the mononuclear phagocytes system (MPS). MPS cells located in the liver, spleen, blood, lymph nodes, and kidney remove from circulation the vast majority of intravenously administered nanomaterials regardless of surface functionalization or conjugation of targeting ligands. Here, we report that nanostructure morphology alone can be engineered for selective uptake by dendritic cells (DCs), which are critical mediators of atherosclerotic inflammation. Employing near-infrared fluorescence imaging and flow cytometry as a multimodal approach, we compared organ and cellular level biodistributions of micelles, vesicles (i.e., polymersomes), and filomicelles, all assembled from poly(ethylene glycol)-bl-poly(propylene sulfide) (PEG-bl-PPS) block copolymers with identical surface chemistries. While micelles and filomicelles were respectively found to associate with liver macrophages and blood-resident phagocytes, polymersomes were exceptionally efficient at targeting splenic DCs (up to 85% of plasmacytoid DCs) and demonstrated significantly lower uptake by other cells of the MPS. In a mouse model of atherosclerosis, polymersomes demonstrated superior specificity for DCs (p < 0.005) in atherosclerotic lesions. Furthermore, significant differences in polymersome cellular biodistributions were observed in atherosclerotic compared to naïve mice, including impaired targeting of phagocytes in lymph nodes. These results present avenues for immunotherapies in cardiovascular disease and demonstrate that nanostructure morphology can be tailored to enhance targeting specificity.

Engineering Nanomaterials to Address Cell-Mediated Inflammation in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis is an inflammatory disorder with a pathophysiology driven by both innate and adaptive immunity and a primary cause of cardiovascular disease (CVD) worldwide. Vascular inflammation and accumulation of foam cells and their products induce maturation of atheromas, or plaques, which can rupture by metalloprotease action, leading to ischemic stroke or myocardial infarction. Diverse immune cell populations participate in all stages of plaque maturation, many of which directly influence plaque stability and rupture via inflammatory mechanisms. Current clinical treatments for atherosclerosis focus on lowering serum levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) using therapeutics such as statins, administration of antithrombotic drugs, and surgical intervention. Strategies that address cell-mediated inflammation in atherosclerosis are lacking and consequently have recently become an area of considerable research focus. Nanomaterials have emerged as highly advantageous tools for these studies, as they can be engineered to target specific inflammatory cell populations, deliver therapeutics of wide-ranging solubilities and enhance analytical methods that include imaging and proteomics. Furthermore, the highly phagocytic nature of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), a diverse cell population central to the initiation of immune responses and inflammation, make them particularly amenable to targeting and modulation by nanoscale particulates. Nanomaterials have therefore become essential components of vaccine formulations and treatments for inflammation-driven pathologies like autoimmunity, and present novel opportunities for immunotherapeutic treatments of CVD. Here, we review recent progress in the design and use of nanomaterials for therapeutic assessment and treatment of atherosclerosis. We will focus on promising new approaches that utilize nanomaterials for cell-specific imaging, gene therapy, and immunomodulation.Lay SummaryCVD continues to be the leading cause of death in the developed world and is a considerable economic burden. The underlying mechanism of most CVD is atherosclerosis, an inflammatory condition characterized by cellularly complex plaque deposits within arterial vessel walls. Therapies that adequately address cell-mediated inflammation and diagnostic tools for early detection of vulnerable plaques are critical weaknesses of current clinical strategies for treating CVD, and nanomaterials have been engineered to uniquely address both of these needs. Here, we review recent progress in the use of nanomaterials designed to enhance imaging and therapeutic intervention of atherosclerotic inflammation.

Role of solvent/non-solvent ratio on microsphere formation using the solvent removal method

The importance of good solvent concentration in the non-solvent mixture and the non-solvent viscosity on the ability to form microspheres using solvent removal process was investigated. The higher the viscosity of the polymer solutions, the higher the concentration of good solvent needed in the non-solvent mixture to produce microspheres. This finding was due to faster precipitation of the polymer phase. Also, the addition of a model drug, fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugated-labelled bovine serum albumin, to the polymer solution (10% poly-L-lactic acid:poly(fumaric-co-sebacic) anhydride in methylene chloride) resulted in an overall lower polymer solution viscosity (15.5 cP with fluorescein isothiocyanate conjugated-labelled bovine serum albumin as compared with 18.25 cP for blank polymer at 25°C). Additionally, the effect of good solvent concentration on non-solvent viscosity was evaluated, and the viscosity decreased as the concentration of good solvent increased. The effect of good solvent concentration on the non-solvent mixture on sphere formation was of great importance. Microspheres would not form when the good polymer solvent (methylene chloride) in the non-solvent phase was too low (below 175 ml for poly-L-lactic acid or 150 ml for poly(D,L-lactid-co-glycolid)) or was replaced by another good solvent such as ethyl acetate, even though the same viscosity was achieved. It was shown that the concentration of the good solvent in the non-solvent mixture was more of a controlling factor than the viscosity of the non-solvent mixture in microsphere formation and the findings support the conclusion that diffusion is the main controlling parameter in solvent removal.

Facile assembly and loading of theranostic polymersomes via multi-impingement flash nanoprecipitation

Flash nanoprecipitation (FNP) has proven to be a powerful tool for the rapid and scalable assembly of solid-core nanoparticles from block copolymers. The process can be performed using a simple confined impingement jets mixer and provides an efficient and reproducible method of loading micelles with hydrophobic drugs. To date, FNP has not been applied for the fabrication of complex or vesicular nanoarchitectures capable of encapsulating hydrophilic molecules or bioactive protein therapeutics. Here, we present FNP as a single customizable method for the assembly of bicontinuous nanospheres, filomicelles and vesicular, multilamellar and tubular polymersomes from poly(ethylene glycol)-bl-poly(propylene sulfide) block copolymers. Multiple impingements of polymersomes assembled via FNP were shown to decrease vesicle diameter and polydispersity, allowing gram-scale fabrication of monodisperse polymersomes within minutes. Furthermore, we demonstrate that FNP supports the simultaneous loading of both hydrophobic and hydrophilic molecules respectively into the polymersome membrane and aqueous lumen, and encapsulated enzymes were found to be released and remain active following vesicle lysis. As an example application, theranostic polymersomes were generated via FNP that were dual loaded with the immunosuppressant rapamycin and a fluorescent dye to link targeted immune cells with the elicited immunomodulation of T cells. By expanding the capabilities of FNP, we present a rapid, scalable and reproducible method of nanofabrication for a wide range of nanoarchitectures that are typically challenging to assemble and load with therapeutics for controlled delivery and theranostic strategies.