Evangelia P. Galanaki

Are Children Able to Distinguish among the Concepts of Aloneness, Loneliness, and Solitude?.

School-age children’s ability to distinguish among the concepts of aloneness, loneliness, and solitude was the focus of this study. This ability has been largely neglected by researchers. Also, the relation of this ability with self-reported loneliness was examined. Individual interviews were conducted with 180 second, fourth, and sixth graders from Athens, Greece. Their responses were qualitatively and quantitatively analysed. Results showed that school-age children were able to perceive the differences between aloneness and loneliness, although they frequently associated being alone with feeling lonely. Nearly half of them perceived the motivational dimension, which distinguishes voluntary from involuntary aloneness. The ability to recognise the existence of beneficial aloneness, that is, solitude, was extremely limited among second graders, but increased dramatically up to the beginning of adolescence. About two thirds of the total sample acknowledged the human desire to be alone. Girls were significantly more able than boys to perceive the differences between aloneness and loneliness, the motivational dimension, and the desire to be alone. More than two-thirds of the total sample had experienced loneliness, but this experience appeared to be unrelated to their understanding of the various aloneness concepts. Age and gender differences, as well as children’s various justifications of their responses, are discussed in the framework of the existing theoretical and research literature on children’s aloneness, loneliness, and solitude.

Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Among Behaviourally At-Risk Children

The aim of this study was to examine the associations between loneliness/social dissatisfaction and teacher-identified behavioural risk during late childhood. A broad range of behaviour problems, as well as academic adjustment, are assessed, in order to specify in which types of behaviour and academic problems loneliness/social dissatisfaction is most likely to occur. Forty-six fifth and sixth graders who were in the borderline or clinical spectrum on the basis of their total Teachers Report Form score completed the Childrens Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction Scale, and were compared with 50 students who did not have behaviour problems. Overall, the behaviourally at-risk group experienced more loneliness/social dissatisfaction than the comparison group. Loneliness was a more strong correlate of the variables studied than social dissatisfaction. For the behaviourally at-risk students, the strongest positive associations were found between loneliness and social problems, withdrawn/depressed behaviour and inattention; a trend for a negative association between loneliness and hyperactivity/impulsivity, as well as rule-breaking behaviour was also found. Children having both internalizing and externalizing problems experienced more loneliness than children with either internalizing or externalizing problems. Academic adjustment (i.e. academic performance, how much a student is learning and how happy he/she is) had negative links with loneliness. Several hypothetical explanations are offered and suggestions for research and action are made.

Teachers and children’s loneliness: A review of the literature and educational implications

The present study is a critical review of the research literature concerning the links between the teacher and children’s loneliness. More specifically, the issue of children’s loneliness in the school is summarized. Research data documenting that loneliness is a risk factor in children’s development are briefly reviewed. Next, hypotheses and research data are reviewed on the following aspects: (I) the association between children’s loneliness and the quality of the teacher-child relationship from the viewpoint of attachment theory; (II) the teacher’s attitude toward children’s loneliness and his or her perceptions of his or her effectiveness in dealing with it; (III) the teacher’s ability to identify lonely children; and (IV) the children’s perceptions of the role of the teacher in the emergence and alleviation of their loneliness. Finally, on the basis of the existing data, critical questions are formulated, suggestions for future research are made, and educational implications for teacher training and school-based interventions are discussed.RésuméCette étude est une contribution qui présente un état des lieux des relations entre les enseignants et la solitude des enfants. Plus en détails le thème de la solitude des élèves à l’école est abordé aussi bien que les recherches qui documentent que la solitude est un facteur de risque dans le développement des enfants. Les contenus suivants sont discutés par rapport aux hypothèse et aux résultats de recherche: (1) association entre solitude des enfants et qualité des relations enseignants-élèves du point de vue de la théorie de l’attachement; (2) attitudes des enseignants envers la solitude des élèves et perceptions des enseignants de leur efficacité; (3) habilité des enseignants d’identifier les élèves seuls; (4) perceptions des élèves du rôle des enseignants dans des situations d’urgence et dans le traitement de leur solitude. Sur la base des résultats sont présentées des questions et des suggestions pour des recherches futures, aussi bien que des implications éducatives pour la formation des enseignants et pour des interventions efficaces dans les écoles.

Teachers and Loneliness The Children‘s Perspective

The aim of this study was to investigate children‘s perceptions (i.e. expectations) of the interventions that teachers should implement to deal with their loneliness. The role of signi.cant others in children‘s attempts to cope with loneliness and the children‘s perceptions of that role have been neglected by researchers. A random sample of 180 second, fourth and sixth graders from Athens, the capital of Greece, were individually interviewed. Qualitative analysis using the ‘concept-indicator model ‘ (Strauss, 1987) showed that school-age children have an adequate understanding of the loneliness alleviation strategies that teachers can and should use. The strategies may be distinguished into the two already known broad categories of coping, that is problem-focused or active coping strategies (i.e. manifestation of interest and care, intervention in the peer group, encouragement to approach peers and make friends, consultation for personal improvement, informing parents), and emotion-focused or avoidance coping strategies (i.e. emotion regulation, encouragement to engage in activities and inability to cope). Results are discussed in terms of their implications for the role of the teacher in alleviating loneliness, for school-based interventions with this purpose, as well as for their contribution in the existing knowledge about coping with loneliness strategies.

Coping with loneliness in childhood

The aim of this study was to examine coping with loneliness during early, middle, and late childhood, which is a highly neglected research issue. Childrens perceptions of coping with loneliness and coping with real loneliness experiences in the past were investigated. Interviews were conducted with 180 second, fourth, and sixth graders from Athens, Greece. Qualitative analyses of childrens responses were done on the basis of a recent conceptualization of coping with stress in childhood and adolescence (Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007), which was supported by the data. Statistically significant age and gender differences were found. Results are discussed from the viewpoint of the two literatures—coping and loneliness—that this study attempted to bring together, and suggestions for future research are made.

Solitude in the School: A Neglected Facet of Children's Development and Education

H uman aloneness has various meanings. Objective aloneness is the state of having no one around, or, more precisely, the state of communicative rather than physical isolation. Painful aloneness, that is, loneliness, is the experience of sadness in the absence of intimacy or belonging, accompanied by a longing for human contact. Loneliness may or may not emerge from aloneness. Moreover, one may experience loneliness even if not literally alone; loneliness is a subjective condition experienced even if others (important or not) are present. Beneficial aloneness is a third type of aloneness, frequently denoted by the word “solitude.” Solitude is a state of voluntary aloneness, in which personality development and creative activity may take place. Artists, writers, and scientists often describe solitude as their most creative and productive state. Therefore, the objective state of being alone may result in feelings of loneliness or in an active, constructive use of time alone, which is the essence of solitude (Buchholz, 1997; Larson, 1999; Marcoen & Goossens, 1993; Moustakas, 1961; Peplau & Perlman, 1982; Rubenstein & Shaver, 1982; Storr, 1988; Suedfeld, 1982). Volition and the desire for aloneness are critical aspects of solitude. Also, solitude is not a nonsocial state; it acquires its meaning within the social context (Long & Averill, 2003). Furthermore, solitude can be experienced even in the presence of others: ”People can maintain a sense of solitude in the presence of others by choosing not to interact with people around them” (Burger, 1995, p. 86). Solitude is a

Criteria for the Transition to Adulthood, Developmental Features of Emerging Adulthood, and Views of the Future Among Greek Studying Youth

This study investigated emerging adulthood and transition to adulthood in Greece, a highly underresearched issue in this country. Participants were 784 university students aged 17.5-27.5 years. Criteria for the transition to adulthood, developmental features of emerging adulthood, perceived adult status, views of the future (optimism), and sociodemographic variables were assessed. The results support the existence of emerging adulthood as a distinct life period in Greece. More than two thirds of the sample were self-perceived emerging adults. Most prevalent criteria were Norm compliance and Family capacities. Developmental features of emerging adulthood ranked high, especially Identity exploration, Experimentation/possibilities, and Feeling “in-between”. Statistically significant variations emerged as a function of gender, age, living arrangement, job experience, and perceived adult status. Views of the future were cautiously optimistic. Similarities with existing data and differences related to the specific characteristics of the Southern European context are discussed.

Evaluating voluntary aloneness in childhood: Initial validation of the Children’s Solitude Scale

This work intends to psychometrically evaluate the newly developed Children’s Solitude Scale (CSS), a measure of voluntary aloneness in childhood. The scale assesses individual differences on what children prefer to do when they want to be alone, a rather neglected, although important developmental issue. Participants were 833 fourth and sixth graders from Athens, Greece. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated four factors, although with a less-than-optimal fit: Self-Reflection, Autonomy/Privacy, Activities and Concentration. The scale showed adequate internal consistency and test-retest reliability as well as convergent and divergent validity (i.e., positive association with positive attitude towards aloneness and ability to be alone, no association with negative attitude towards aloneness, and low positive correlation with loneliness and social dissatisfaction). The results indicated the suitability of the CSS to assess reasons or motives for solitude during middle and late childhood and the necessity to further examine the structure of this type of solitude experiences in this age period.

Health education: Effects on classroom climate and physical activity

Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between classroom psychological climate and the physical and sedentary behaviour of primary school students after the implementation of an innovative education programme regarding nutrition and physical activity. Design: Randomised controlled trial. Setting: Study participants were 729 students, aged 8–10 years, in the third and fourth grade of 30 public primary schools in the Athens Metropolitan Area. Methods: Students were randomly assigned to three study groups: an Intensive Intervention Group (IIG) that underwent an intensive nutrition and physical activity education programme delivered by specialised personnel and teachers, an Intervention Group (IG) that underwent a less intensive programme delivered by their regular teacher and a Control Group (CG) that received no instruction. Classroom Psychological Climate (CPC) was measured in all groups, and the data regarding physical activity and sedentary lifestyle habits, such as the time spent viewing TV or video games (screen time), were recorded. Results: Friction declined and satisfaction increased significantly after the intervention in the IG compared with the CG. There was no significant difference in physical activity and screen time between the groups. Daily screen time was positively associated with increased friction, which is a measure of conflicts between students in the school environment. Conclusion: A school nutrition and physical activity education programme was shown to decrease friction by decreasing daily screen time and increasing outdoor activities. These findings also suggest that teachers alone may be more effective in delivering optional health education programmes than specialised personnel and instructors.

Dimensions of Emerging Adulthood, Criteria for Adulthood, and Identity Development in Greek Studying Youth: A Person-Centered Approach

Little research has been conducted on emerging adulthood in Greece, although sociodemographic specificities and constraints due to financial crisis are expected to reinforce prolonged transition to adulthood in this Southern European country. Using a person-centered approach, the current study aimed to examine dimensions of emerging adulthood, criteria for adulthood, and identity development among studying youth in association with personal and structural variables (i.e., gender, age, living arrangement, work experience, steady romantic relationship status, and financial adversity). Participants were 814 university students (Mage = 19.9 years). Latent profile analysis yielded five profiles: anxious explorers in-between (29.90%), immature explorers (29.58%), emerging adults (18.30%), adult committers (12.58%), and blocked in transition (9.64%). Significant between-profile differentiation was found regarding all variables except from age and work experience. The results support the existence of emerging adulthood in Greece and indicate diverse paths to adulthood within the rather homogeneous population of studying youth in this country.