Evgenia N. Nikolova

Transient Hoogsteen Base Pairs in Canonical Duplex DNA

Sequence-directed variations in the canonical DNA double helix structure that retain Watson–Crick base-pairing have important roles in DNA recognition, topology and nucleosome positioning. By using nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation dispersion spectroscopy in concert with steered molecular dynamics simulations, we have observed transient sequence-specific excursions away from Watson–Crick base-pairing at CA and TA steps inside canonical duplex DNA towards low-populated and short-lived A•T and G•C Hoogsteen base pairs. The observation of Hoogsteen base pairs in DNA duplexes specifically bound to transcription factors and in damaged DNA sites implies that the DNA double helix intrinsically codes for excited state Hoogsteen base pairs as a means of expanding its structural complexity beyond that which can be achieved based on Watson–Crick base-pairing. The methods presented here provide a new route for characterizing transient low-populated nucleic acid structures, which we predict will be abundant in the genome and constitute a second transient layer of the genetic code.

Characterizing RNA dynamics at atomic resolution using solution-state NMR spectroscopy

Many recently discovered noncoding RNAs do not fold into a single native conformation but sample many different conformations along their free-energy landscape to carry out their biological function. Here we review solution-state NMR techniques that measure the structural, kinetic and thermodynamic characteristics of RNA motions spanning picosecond to second timescales at atomic resolution, allowing unprecedented insights into the RNA dynamic structure landscape. From these studies a basic description of the RNA dynamic structure landscape is emerging, bringing new insights into how RNA structures change to carry out their function as well as applications in RNA-targeted drug discovery and RNA bioengineering.

Extending the Range of Microsecond-to-Millisecond Chemical Exchange Detected in Labeled and Unlabeled Nucleic Acids by Selective Carbon R1ρ NMR Spectroscopy

We present an off-resonance carbon R(1rho) NMR experiment utilizing weak radiofrequency fields and selective polarization transfers for quantifying chemical-exchange processes in nucleic acids. The experiment extends the range of accessible time scales to approximately 10 ms, and its time-saving feature makes it possible to thoroughly map out dispersion profiles and conduct measurements at natural abundance. The experiment unveiled microsecond-to-millisecond exchange dynamics in a uniformly labeled A-site rRNA and in unlabeled, damaged DNA that would otherwise be difficult to characterize by conventional methods.

Single VS Ribozyme Molecules Reveal Dynamic and Hierarchical Folding Toward Catalysis

Non-coding RNAs of complex tertiary structure are involved in numerous aspects of the replication and processing of genetic information in many organisms; however, an understanding of the complex relationship between their structural dynamics and function is only slowly emerging. The Neurospora Varkud Satellite (VS) ribozyme provides a model system to address this relationship. First, it adopts a tertiary structure assembled from common elements, a kissing loop and two three-way junctions. Second, catalytic activity of the ribozyme is essential for replication of VS RNA in vivo and can be readily assayed in vitro. Here we exploit single molecule FRET to show that the VS ribozyme exhibits previously unobserved dynamic and heterogeneous hierarchical folding into an active structure. Readily reversible kissing loop formation combined with slow cleavage of the upstream substrate helix suggests a model whereby the structural dynamics of the VS ribozyme favor cleavage of the substrate downstream of the ribozyme core instead. This preference is expected to facilitate processing of the multimeric RNA replication intermediate into circular VS RNA, which is the predominant form observed in vivo.

Characterizing the Protonation State of Cytosine in Transient G•C Hoogsteen Base Pairs in Duplex DNA

G·C Hoogsteen base pairs can form transiently in duplex DNA and play important roles in DNA recognition, replication, and repair. G·C Hoogsteen base pairs are thought to be stabilized by protonation of cytosine N3, which affords a second key hydrogen bond, but experimental evidence for this is sparse because the proton cannot be directly visualized by X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Here, we combine NMR and constant pH molecular dynamics simulations to directly investigate the pKa of cytosine N3 in a chemically trapped N1-methyl-G·C Hoogsteen base pair within duplex DNA. Analysis of NMR chemical shift perturbations and NOESY data as a function of pH revealed that cytosine deprotonation is coupled to a syn-to-anti transition in N1-methyl-G, which results in a distorted Watson-Crick geometry at pH >9. A four-state analysis of the pH titration profiles yields a lower bound pKa estimate of 7.2 ± 0.1 for the G·C Hoogsteen base pair, which is in good agreement with the pKa value (7.1 ± 0.1) calculated independently using constant pH MD simulations. Based on these results and pH-dependent NMR relaxation dispersion measurements, we estimate that under physiological pH (pH 7-8), G·C Hoogsteen base pairs in naked DNA have a population of 0.02-0.002%, as compared to 0.4% for A·T Hoogsteen base pairs, and likely exist primarily as protonated species.

Widespread transient Hoogsteen base pairs in canonical duplex DNA with variable energetics

Hoogsteen (HG) base pairing involves a 180° rotation of the purine base relative to Watson-Crick (WC) base pairing within DNA duplexes, creating alternative DNA conformations that can play roles in recognition, damage induction and replication. Here, using nuclear magnetic resonance R1ρ relaxation dispersion, we show that transient HG base pairs occur across more diverse sequence and positional contexts than previously anticipated. We observe sequence-specific variations in HG base pair energetic stabilities that are comparable with variations in WC base pair stability, with HG base pairs being more abundant for energetically less favourable WC base pairs. Our results suggest that the variations in HG stabilities and rates of formation are dominated by variations in WC base pair stability, suggesting a late transition state for the WC-to-HG conformational switch. The occurrence of sequence and position-dependent HG base pairs provide a new potential mechanism for achieving sequence-dependent DNA transactions.

Probing Transient Hoogsteen Hydrogen Bonds in Canonical Duplex DNA Using NMR Relaxation Dispersion and Single-Atom Substitution

Nucleic acids transiently morph into alternative conformations that can be difficult to characterize at the atomic level by conventional methods because they exist for too little time and in too little abundance. We recently reported evidence for transient Hoogsteen (HG) base pairs in canonical B-DNA based on NMR carbon relaxation dispersion. While the carbon chemical shifts measured for the transient state were consistent with a syn orientation for the purine base, as expected for A(syn)•T(anti) and G(syn)•C(+)(anti) HG base pairing, HG type hydrogen bonding could only be inferred indirectly. Here, we develop two independent approaches for directly probing transient changes in N-H···N hydrogen bonds and apply them to the characterization of transient Hoogsteen type hydrogen bonds in canonical duplex DNA. The first approach takes advantage of the strong dependence of the imino nitrogen chemical shift on hydrogen bonding and involves measurement of R(1ρ) relaxation dispersion for the hydrogen-bond donor imino nitrogens in G and T residues. In the second approach, we assess the consequence of substituting the hydrogen-bond acceptor nitrogen (N7) with a carbon (C7H7) on both carbon and nitrogen relaxation dispersion data. Together, these data allow us to obtain direct evidence for transient Hoogsteen base pairs that are stabilized by N-H···N type hydrogen bonds in canonical duplex DNA. The methods introduced here greatly expand the utility of NMR in the structural characterization of transient states in nucleic acids.

m 1 A and m 1 G disrupt A-RNA structure through the intrinsic instability of Hoogsteen base pairs

The B-DNA double helix can dynamically accommodate G-C and A-T base pairs in either Watson–Crick or Hoogsteen configurations. Here, we show that G-C+ (in which + indicates protonation) and A-U Hoogsteen base pairs are strongly disfavored in A-RNA. As a result,N1-methyladenosine and N1-methylguanosine, which occur in DNA as a form of alkylation damage and in RNA as post-transcriptional modifications, have dramatically different consequences. Whereas they create G-C+ and A-T Hoogsteen base pairs in duplex DNA, thereby maintaining the structural integrity of the double helix, they block base-pairing and induce local duplex melting in RNA. These observations provide a mechanism for disrupting RNA structure through post-transcriptional modifications. The different propensities to form Hoogsteen base pairs in B-DNA and A-RNA may help cells meet the opposing requirements of maintaining genome stability, on the one hand, and of dynamically modulating the structure of the epitranscriptome, on the other.

Probing sequence-specific DNA flexibility in a-tracts and pyrimidine-purine steps by nuclear magnetic resonance (13)C relaxation and molecular dynamics simulations.

Sequence-specific DNA flexibility plays a key role in a variety of cellular interactions that are critical for gene packaging, expression, and regulation, yet few studies have experimentally explored the sequence dependence of DNA dynamics that occur on biologically relevant time scales. Here, we use nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) carbon spin relaxation combined with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to examine the picosecond to nanosecond dynamics in a variety of dinucleotide steps as well as in varying length homopolymeric A(n)·T(n) repeats (A(n)-tracts, where n = 2, 4, or 6) that exhibit unusual structural and mechanical properties. We extend the NMR spin relaxation time scale sensitivity deeper into the nanosecond regime by using glycerol and a longer DNA duplex to slow overall tumbling. Our studies reveal a structurally unique A-tract core (for n > 3) that is uniformly rigid, flanked by junction steps that show increasing sugar flexibility with A-tract length. High sugar mobility is observed at pyrimidine residues at the A-tract junctions, which is encoded at the dinucleotide level (CA, TG, and CG steps) and increases with A-tract length. The MD simulations reproduce many of these trends, particularly the overall rigidity of A-tract base and sugar sites, and suggest that the sugar-backbone dynamics could involve transitions in sugar pucker and phosphate backbone BI ↔ BII equilibria. Our results reinforce an emerging view that sequence-specific DNA flexibility can be imprinted in dynamics occurring deep within the nanosecond time regime that is difficult to characterize experimentally at the atomic level. Such large-amplitude sequence-dependent backbone fluctuations might flag the genome for specific DNA recognition.

Intrinsic Dynamics of DNA-Polymer Complexes: a Mechanism for DNA Release

The transfer of genetic material into cells using nonviral vectors offers unique potential for therapeutics; however, the efficacy of delivery depends upon a poorly understood, multistep pathway, limiting the prospects for successful gene delivery. Mechanistic insight into DNA association and release has been hampered by a lack of atomic resolution structural and dynamic information for DNA-polymer complexes (polyplexes). Here, we report a dendrimer-based polyplex system containing poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG) arms that is suitable for atomic-level characterization by solution NMR spectroscopy. NMR chemical shift, line width, and proton transverse relaxation rate measurements reveal that free and dendrimer-bound polyplex DNA exchange rapidly relative to the NMR time scale (<millisecond). The dendrimers retain a high degree of mobility in the polyplex, whereas the DNA shows restrained mobility, suggesting that the polyplex is a highly dynamic complex with a rapidly exchanging dendrimer atmosphere around a more rigid DNA framework.