Fabio Anselmi

ATP release through connexin hemichannels and gap junction transfer of second messengers propagate Ca2+ signals across the inner ear

Extracellular ATP controls various signaling systems including propagation of intercellular Ca2+ signals (ICS). Connexin hemichannels, P2x7 receptors (P2x7Rs), pannexin channels, anion channels, vesicles, and transporters are putative conduits for ATP release, but their involvement in ICS remains controversial. We investigated ICS in cochlear organotypic cultures, in which ATP acts as an IP3-generating agonist and evokes Ca2+ responses that have been linked to noise-induced hearing loss and development of hair cell-afferent synapses. Focal delivery of ATP or photostimulation with caged IP3 elicited Ca2+ responses that spread radially to several orders of unstimulated cells. Furthermore, we recorded robust Ca2+ signals from an ATP biosensor apposed to supporting cells outside the photostimulated area in WT cultures. ICS propagated normally in cultures lacking either P2x7R or pannexin-1 (Px1), as well as in WT cultures exposed to blockers of anion channels. By contrast, Ca2+ responses failed to propagate in cultures with defective expression of connexin 26 (Cx26) or Cx30. A companion paper demonstrates that, if expression of either Cx26 or Cx30 is blocked, expression of the other is markedly down-regulated in the outer sulcus. Lanthanum, a connexin hemichannel blocker that does not affect gap junction (GJ) channels when applied extracellularly, limited the propagation of Ca2+ responses to cells adjacent to the photostimulated area. Our results demonstrate that these connexins play a dual crucial role in inner ear Ca2+ signaling: as hemichannels, they promote ATP release, sustaining long-range ICS propagation; as GJ channels, they allow diffusion of Ca2+-mobilizing second messengers across coupled cells.

Coordinated control of connexin 26 and connexin 30 at the regulatory and functional level in the inner ear

Connexin 26 (Cx26) and connexin 30 (Cx30) are encoded by two genes (GJB2 and GJB6, respectively) that are found within 50 kb in the same complex deafness locus, DFNB1. Immunocytochemistry and quantitative PCR analysis of Cx30 KO mouse cultures revealed that Cx26 is downregulated at the protein level and at the mRNA level in nonsensory cells located between outer hair cells and the stria vascularis. To explore connexin coregulation, we manipulated gene expression using the bovine adeno-associated virus. Overexpression of Cx30 in the Cx30 KO mouse by transduction with bovine adeno-associated virus restored Cx26 expression, permitted the formation of functional gap junction channels, and rescued propagating Ca2+ signals. Ablation of Cx26 by transduction of Cx26loxP/loxP cultures with a Cre recombinase vector caused concurrent downregulation of Cx30 and impaired intercellular communication. The coordinated regulation of Cx26 and Cx30 expression appears to occur as a result of signaling through PLC and the NF-κB pathway, because activation of IP3-mediated Ca2+ responses by stimulation of P2Y receptors for 20 min with 20 nM ATP increased the levels of Cx26 transcripts in Cx30 KO cultures. This effect was inhibited by expressing a stable form of the IκB repressor protein that prevents activation/translocation of NF-κB. Thus, our data reveal a Ca2+-dependent control in the expression of inner ear connexins implicated in hereditary deafness as well as insight into the hitherto unexplained observation that some deafness-associated DFNB1 alleles are characterized by hereditable reduction of both GJB2 and GJB6 expression.

The CXCR4 mutations in WHIM syndrome impair the stability of the T-cell immunologic synapse.

WHIM (warts, hypogammaglobulinemia, infections, myelokathexis) syndrome is a rare disease characterized by diverse symptoms indicative of aberrantly functioning immunity. It is caused by mutations in the chemokine receptor CXCR4, which impair its intracellular trafficking, leading to increased responsiveness to chemokine ligand and retention of neutrophils in bone marrow. Yet WHIM symptoms related to adaptive immunity, such as delayed IgG switching and impaired memory B-cell function, remain largely unexplained. We hypothesized that the WHIM-associated mutations in CXCR4 may affect the formation of immunologic synapses between T cells and antigen-presenting cells (APCs). We show that, in the presence of competing external chemokine signals, the stability of T-APC conjugates from patients with WHIM-mutant CXCR4 is disrupted as a result of impaired recruitment of the mutant receptor to the immunologic synapse. Using retrogenic mice that develop WHIM-mutant T cells, we show that WHIM-mutant CXCR4 inhibits the formation of long-lasting T-APC interactions in ex vivo lymph node slice time-lapse microscopy. These findings demonstrate that chemokine receptors can affect T-APC synapse stability and allow us to propose a novel mechanism that contributes to the adaptive immune response defects in WHIM patients.

ATP-mediated cell–cell signaling in the organ of Corti: the role of connexin channels

Connexin 26 (Cx26) and connexin 30 (Cx30) form hemichannels that release ATP from the endolymphatic surface of cochlear supporting and epithelial cells and also form gap junction (GJ) channels that allow the concomitant intercellular diffusion of Ca2+ mobilizing second messengers. Released ATP in turn activates G-protein coupled P2Y2 and P2Y4 receptors, PLC-dependent generation of IP3, release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores, instigating the regenerative propagation of intercellular Ca2+ signals (ICS). The range of ICS propagation is sensitive to the concentration of extracellular divalent cations and activity of ectonucleotidases. Here, the expression patterns of Cx26 and Cx30 were characterized in postnatal cochlear tissues obtained from mice aged between P5 and P6. The expression gradient along the longitudinal axis of the cochlea, decreasing from the basal to the apical cochlear turn (CT), was more pronounced in outer sulcus (OS) cells than in inner sulcus (IS) cells. GJ-mediated dye coupling was maximal in OS cells of the basal CT, inhibited by the nonselective connexin channel blocker carbenoxolone (CBX) and absent in hair cells. Photostimulating OS cells with caged inositol (3,4,5) tri-phosphate (IP3) resulted in transfer of ICS in the lateral direction, from OS cells to IS cells across the hair cell region (HCR) of medial and basal CTs. ICS transfer in the opposite (medial) direction, from IS cells photostimulated with caged IP3 to OS cells, occurred mostly in the basal CT. In addition, OS cells displayed impressive rhythmic activity with oscillations of cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) coordinated by the propagation of Ca2+ wavefronts sweeping repeatedly through the same tissue area along the coiling axis of the cochlea. Oscillations evoked by uncaging IP3 or by applying ATP differed greatly, by as much as one order of magnitude, in frequency and waveform rise time. ICS evoked by direct application of ATP propagated along convoluted cellular paths in the OS, which often branched and changed dynamically over time. Potential implications of these findings are discussed in the context of developmental regulation and cochlear pathophysiology.

Adhesion shapes T cells for prompt and sustained T‐cell receptor signalling

During T‐cell migration, cell polarity is orchestrated by chemokine receptors and adhesion molecules and involves the functional redistribution of molecules and organelles towards specific cell compartments. In contrast, it is generally believed that the cell polarity established when T cells meet antigen‐presenting cells (APCs) is controlled by the triggered T‐cell receptor (TCR). Here, we show that, during activation of human T lymphocytes by APCs, chemokines and LFA‐1 establish cell polarity independently of TCR triggering. Chemokine‐induced LFA‐1 activation results in fast recruitment of MTOC and mitochondria towards the potential APC, a process required to amplify TCR Ca2+ signalling at the upcoming immunological synapse, to promote nuclear translocation of transcriptional factor NFATc2 and boost CD25 expression. Our data show that the initial adhesive signals delivered by chemokines and LFA‐1 shape and prepare T cells for antigen recognition.

Reduced phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate synthesis impairs inner ear Ca2+ signaling and high-frequency hearing acquisition.

Phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase type 1γ (PIPKIγ) is a key enzyme in the generation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] and is expressed at high levels in the nervous system. Homozygous knockout mice lacking this enzyme die postnatally within 24 h, whereas PIPKIγ+/− siblings breed normally and have no reported phenotype. Here we show that adult PIPKIγ+/− mice have dramatically elevated hearing thresholds for high-frequency sounds. During the first postnatal week we observed a reduction of ATP-dependent Ca2+ signaling activity in cochlear nonsensory cells. Because Ca2+ signaling under these conditions depends on inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate generation from phospholipase C (PLC)-dependent hydrolysis of PI(4,5)P2, we conclude that (i) PIPKIγ is primarily responsible for the synthesis of the receptor-regulated PLC-sensitive PI(4,5)P2 pool in the cell syncytia that supports auditory hair cells; (ii) spatially graded impairment of this signaling pathway in cochlear nonsensory cells causes a selective alteration in the acquisition of hearing in PIPKIγ+/− mice. This mouse model also suggests that PIPKIγ may determine the level of gap junction contribution to cochlear development.

Adenosine triphosphate acts as a paracrine signaling molecule to reduce the motility of T cells

Organization of immune responses requires exchange of information between cells. This is achieved through either direct cell–cell contacts and establishment of temporary synapses or the release of soluble factors, such as cytokines and chemokines. Here we show a novel form of cell‐to‐cell communication based on adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP released by stimulated T cells induces P2X4/P2X7‐mediated calcium waves in the neighboring lymphocytes. Our data obtained in lymph node slices suggest that, during T‐cell priming, ATP acts as a paracrine messenger to reduce the motility of lymphocytes and that this may be relevant to allow optimal tissue scanning by T cells.

Local copying of orthogonal entangled quantum states

In classical information theory one can, in principle, produce a perfect copy of any input state. In quantum information theory, the no cloning theorem prohibits exact copying of non-orthogonal states. Moreover, if we wish to copy multiparticle entangled states and can perform only local operations and classical communication (LOCC), then further restrictions apply. We investigate the problem of copying orthogonal, entangled quantum states with an entangled blankstateundertherestrictiontoLOCC.Throughout,thesubsystemshavefinite dimension D. We show that if all of the states to be copied are non-maximally entangled,thennovelLOCCcopyingproceduresbasedonentanglementcatalysis are possible. We then study in detail the LOCC copying problem where both the blank state and at least one of the states to be copied are maximally entangled. For this to be possible, we find that all the states to be copied must be maximally entangled. We obtain a necessary and sufficient condition for LOCC copying under these conditions. For two orthogonal, maximally entangled states, we provide the general solution to this condition.We use it to show that for D = 2,3, any pair of orthogonal, maximally entangled states can be locally copied using a maximally entangled blank state. However, we also show that for any D which is not prime, one can construct pairs of such states for which this is impossible.

ENTANGLEMENT OF IDENTICAL PARTICLES AND REFERENCE PHASE UNCERTAINTY

We have recently introduced a measure of the bipartite entanglement of identical particles, EP, based on the principle that entanglement should be accessible for use as a resource in quantum information processing. We show here that particle entanglement is limited by the lack of a reference phase shared by the two parties, and that the entanglement is constrained to reference-phase invariant subspaces. The super-additivity of EP results from the fact that this constraint is weaker for combined systems. A shared reference phase can only be established by transferring particles between the parties, that is, with additional nonlocal resources. We show how this nonlocal operation can increase the particle entanglement.

Invariant Recognition Predicts Tuning of Neurons in Sensory Cortex

Tuning properties of simple cells in cortical V1 can be described in terms of a “universal shape” characterized quantitatively by parameter values which hold across different species (Jones and Palmer 1987; Ringach 2002; Niell and Stryker 2008). This puzzling set of findings begs for a general explanation grounded on an evolutionarily important computational function of the visual cortex. We show here that these properties are quantitatively predicted by the hypothesis that the goal of the ventral stream is to compute for each image a “signature” vector which is invariant to geometric transformations (Anselmi et al. 2013b). The mechanism for continuously learning and maintaining invariance may be the memory storage of a sequence of neural images of a few (arbitrary) objects via Hebbian synapses, while undergoing transformations such as translation, scale changes and rotation. For V1 simple cells this hypothesis implies that the tuning of neurons converges to the eigenvectors of the covariance of their input. Starting with a set of dendritic fields spanning a range of sizes, we show with simulations suggested by a direct analysis, that the solution of the associated “cortical equation” effectively provides a set of Gabor-like shapes with parameter values that quantitatively agree with the physiology data. The same theory provides predictions about the tuning of cells in V4 and in the face patch AL (Leibo et al. 2013a) which are in qualitative agreement with physiology data.