Farrukh B. Hakeem

Racially Disproportionate Admission Rates for Ambulatory Care Sensitive Conditions in North Carolina

Objective. This study examines race variations in quality of care through the proxy of ambulatory care sensitive (ACS) conditions. Hospital admission rates for eight ACS conditions were examined for African American and white Medicare beneficiaries in North Carolina. Temporal variations for ACS were also examined. Method. Enrollment and inpatient claims files from the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) for a 1999–2002 cohort who were aged 65 years or older in 1999 were examined. Descriptive statistics were computed for each year. Cochran-Mantel Haenszel tests were performed to assess differences in the admission rates for both individual and aggregate ACS conditions controlling for time. The Cochran-Armitage test for trend was used to evaluate changes in admission rates over time. Results. African Americans had higher admission rates for five of the eight ACS conditions. The highest rates were for diabetes among African Americans (odds ratio [OR]=2.86; 95% confidence interval [CI] [2.73, 2.99]) and adult asthma (OR=1.51; 95% CI [1.43, 1.61]). African Americans tended to have lower ACS admission rates than white patients for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (OR=0.67; 95% CI [0.65, 0.69]); bacterial pneumonia (OR=0.86; 95% CI [0.84, 0.89]), and angina (OR=0.90; 95% CI [0.84, 0.97]). Conclusions. Using the ACS proxy for quality of health care as applied to examining race and ethnicity is a promising approach, though challenges remain. Admissions for ACS conditions between African American and white patients differ, but it is unclear why. This exploratory study must lead to an examination of social, economic, historical, and cultural factors for preventive, remedial, and beneficial policy initiatives.

Sports-Related Crime: A Game Theory Approach

Sports-related crime is a variant of white-collar crime, one of the modern day versions of this can be seen in the phenomenon of match-fixing. This chapter uses the Game Theory approach to analyze the problem of sports-related crime. Game theory is applied to gain insight regarding the conflict between thoughtful and deceitful adversaries and is employed to analyze the interactions between law enforcement and defendants who commit sports-related crimes. The Prisoner’s Dilemma will be employed to gain further insight into the dynamics that ensue amongst the various players – law enforcement, prosecutor, and players. After examining the levels of sports-related crime, formulating a cognitive valence map along with its approximations, and estimating its legal parameters and implications, the author suggests some preventive legal strategies. It concludes by highlighting the crucial need for more data at a global level that could assist researchers, law enforcement, and academics to get a better insight into this problem. It further calls for the creation of a Global Database on Sports-Related Crime.

Alternative perspectives on penality under Sharia: A review essay

Due to its divine origins, the Sharia is a unique legal system when compared with other legal systems. It is based on divine laws that were revealed more than 1400 years ago and is an all‐encompassing system based on moral values. In the post‐colonial era, serious problems have arisen due to the implementation of foreign codes. Many Muslims believe that the renewal of society necessitates a return to Islam, which draws its inspiration directly from the Quran and the Hadith (traditions of the Prophet). Many further believe that in order to create a truly Islamic order, more Islamic codes need to replace the present Western‐ inspired legal codes. This paper examines the social, religious and philosophical bases of punishment under the Islamic criminal justice system. Each kind of punishment (Hudud, Qisas, and Taazir) is examined and the views of the Fuqaha (jurists) from the different schools of Islamic law are analyzed. The goals and policies of this system are also scrutinized. The Sharia is far more complex and resilient than the perception that it is a rigid, undifferentiated and barbaric system. Current trends indicate a growing interest in Islamic countries to reverting to the Sharia. Some areas of cross‐cultural study for comparative legal scholars are also outlined.

From Sharia to Mens Rea: Legal transition to the Raj

Comparative legal scholars classify legal traditions under four categories: Common, Civil, Socialist and Islamic. Each of these traditions is normally examined separately for one country. This paper examines the interaction between two different traditions on a temporal plane within one country. It seeks to trace the legal transformation in undivided India (1526–1947 AD) from that of a complex Islamic tradition to one that had to adapt to a Common law tradition. This process traces the transformation through three time periods (Islamic, Transitional and Consolidation). It also examines changes in the administrative, bureaucratic and legal elites during these three periods.

Police and the Administration of Justice in Medieval India

The policing system of India went through various models during the process of conquest by foreign rulers. The Aryan system was supplanted by the Muslim legal system after the Muslim rulers embarked on a more permanent stay in India. The Muslim legal system could not be implemented in its original orthodox form. In order to be incorporated into the Indian setting, the Mughal emperors had to adapt the Muslim law to the Indian environment. The Panchayati system of India in combination with the Arab and Persian systems of the Delhi sultanates and the Mughal emperors, respectively, created a very versatile and unique administrative blend. This chapter examines the system of policing and administration of justice during the Mughal period (1526–1707). It postulates that the Perso–Arab system that the Mughals inherited through the Delhi sultanates was in turn transformed when this system came into contact with the multiracial and multireligious Indian environment. The new system went through a profound change when coming into contact with Indian society, institutions, and culture. The legal system and the policing system employed by the Mughals incorporated elements of Indian law and administration. The resulting system ended up as one that can be more accurately characterized as a blend of the Arab-Persian-Indian system of administration. The system was forced to adopt a very liberal and tolerant interpretation of the Muslim law. Mughal power began to wane when the policy changed to a more orthodox Sunni model under Aurangzeb.

Conclusions: Pathways Towards an Equity and Parity in Policing

The main goal of this book is to engage in and provoke a more intense and empirically grounded academic discourse on the effective and equitable form of policing of religious minority communities.

The Concept of Punishment Under Sharia

On account of its divine origins, the Sharia is a unique legal system when compared to other legal systems. It is based primarily on the Quran, which was revealed to Prophet Muhammad more than 1,400 years ago, and is considered to be an all-encompassing system that expresses the Divine will. Theories of Islamic law developed during the second century of the Islamic calendar (about 800 CE). Later schools of thought developed with each school based on the writings of scholars (fuqaha) dealing with different aspects of law, based on their varying interpretations of the Quran and the Hadith. Muslims believe that the renewal of society requires a return to Islam, which draws inspiration from the two main sources: Quran and Hadith. Ethical standards and legal rules govern not merely what humans are legally entitled to do, but also what they ought, in conscience, to do, or refrain from doing. As opposed to other legal systems, the Sharia is a comprehensive code that regulates conduct encompassing both the public and private domains by controlling the inner conscience and external social relations. This chapter scrutinizes the religious, social, and philosophical bases of crime and punishment under Islamic law. Each of the three kinds of punishment (Hadd, Taazir, and Qisas) is examined and the views of the various jurists from the different schools are analyzed. This enquiry also delves into the goals and policies that underlie this system of law. Far from being a rigid, barbaric, and undifferentiated system, the Sharia is far more resilient and complex than is currently envisaged. Presently, there is a trend that shows an increased interest in the Sharia both in the West and in non-Western countries.

Policing the Muslim Community in India

Muslims, the largest minority of India face discrimination and poor service from police in the country. The police tend to profile Muslim youth as terrorists in extremist-affected areas or involved in organized criminal activities in other regions. Examples of Muslims suffering from police action or worse, omission, are well documented. Muslims generally have low confidence in the Indian police and are unwilling to co-operate with them even when victimized. The chapter highlights the mutual suspicion that exists between the police and minority communities and points to its dangerous implications for internal security. However, the mistreatment of the Muslim community is also due to the internal problems of police administration. The chapter describes a variety of poor management practices debilitating the organization and prevailing indifference of the leadership towards performance appraisal. Even though it is well understood that the minorities are estranged, few systematic efforts are undertaken to address this problem. The alienation of Muslims can be removed by not only greater recruitment in the police services but also by addressing their specific problems. The police need to build greater trust among the community, which is linked to the provision of basic security to Muslims. Above all, the police need to become accountable to the people and involve them as coproducers of their own safety. A repressive, ruler-oriented police cannot serve the interests of minorities in a democratic society.

Human Rights and Islamic Law

Human rights and Islam are not incompatible. This chapter looks at the concept of power and its management in society. It examines the distribution and management of power, and the systems to correct the abuse of power in Muslim societies. After an examination of the International Bill of Human Rights, some of the mechanisms for incorporation of Human Rights through the doctrine of maslahah are examined.

Policing Muslims in Western Democracies

After the incidents of September 9, 2011 the Muslim community in the United States and in most western democracies has come under official and public scrutiny. Muslims, due to their particular culture, adherence to religious practices, and minority status have encountered hostility and even physical attacks. Their allegiance to countries of residence and to liberal democratic values has been questioned. Above all, the policing of Muslim communities in liberal societies has been a subject of increasing interest. There have been growing allegations of profiling and targeting of Muslim youth by the security agencies. Intrusive surveillance, humiliating searches at the airports, and questionable stops on the roads have been reported by Muslims. On the other hand, security agencies have attempted to work with the community and hired minority officers to build bridges. This chapter examines the experiences of Muslim groups and the successes and failures of policing of their community in some selected western democracies.