Francis J. Ferrandino

Long-term spatial dynamics in an old-growth deciduous forest

Abstract In 1926, 1976, and 1986 stems (≥ 10 cm diameter at 1.37 m (dbh)) were measured and mapped in a 4 ha interior study area on the Davis-Purdue Research Forest in east-central Indiana. Spatial pattern type was determined using the Clark and Evanss index, and Ripleys L function. The G function was used to examine spatial dispersion at intertree distances ( 25 dbh) trees was uniform between 1926 and 1986. Density-dependent mortality and ingrowth processes are maintaining uniform spatial distributions. Initial neighborhood tree distribution was higher around trees which died in the periods 1926–1976 and 1976–1986 than for contemporary survivors, i.e. trees which survived this period had fewer neighboring trees within 6 m at the beginning of the period than did trees which died. The higher initial neighborhood densities around mortality trees than survivors supports density-dependent mortality. Ingrowth was inhibited in a 6 m zone proximite to established trees for both the 1926–1976 and 1976–1986 periods.

West Nile Virus from Female and Male Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in Subterranean, Ground, and Canopy Habitats in Connecticut

Abstract In total, 93,532 female mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) were captured in traps placed in subterranean (catch basin), ground (≈ 1.5 m above ground), and canopy (≈7.0 m above ground) habitats in Stamford and Stratford, CT, during 2003–2005. Culex pipiens L. was the most abundant (64.8%) of the 31 species identified. Significantly greater numbers of Cx. pipiens were captured in canopy-placed mosquito magnet experimental traps, and significantly greater numbers were collected in catch basin-placed (Centers for Disease Control) CDC traps than in CDC traps placed elsewhere. Culex restuans Theobald was captured in significantly greater numbers in traps placed in catch basins. Aedes vexans (Meigen), Aedes cinereus Meigen, and Aedes cantator (Coquillett) were significantly more abundant in ground traps. In total, 429 isolations of West Nile virus (WNV) were made from seven species of mosquitoes from late June through the end of October during 2003 through 2005. Three hundred ninety-eight (92.8%) isolates were from Cx. pipiens. Others were from Cx. restuans (n = 16), Culex salinarius Coquillett (n = 5), Ae. vexans (n = 4), Ae. cantator (n = 3), Aedes triseriatus (Say) (n = 2), and Ae. cinereus (n = 1). Multiple isolates from Cx. pipiens were made each week, primarily during the later part of July through the end of September. Weekly minimum infection rates (MIRs) were lower in 2004 (highest weekly MIR = 7.1) when no human cases were reported in Connecticut in comparison with 2003 and 2005 (highest weekly MIR = 83.9) when human cases were documented. Frequencies of infected pools were significantly higher in Cx. pipiens captured in traps in the canopy and significantly higher in catch basin placed traps than in traps at ground level. The physiological age structure of Cx. pipiens captured in the canopy was significantly different from that of Cx. pipiens collected in catch basins. Invariably, Cx. pipiens captured in the canopy were nulliparous or parous with ovaries in Christophers’ stage 2, whereas 58.7% of the females captured in catch basins possessed ovaries filled with mature oocytes in Christophers’ stage 5. Our results suggest that females in the canopy are seeking hosts, and after digestion of the bloodmeal and development of mature oocytes, they descend to catch basins for shelter and deposition of eggs. WNV was isolated from three, one, and two pools of male Cx. pipiens captured in catch basin-, ground-, and canopy-placed traps, respectively, and from six nulliparous Cx. pipiens females collected in the canopy. Weekly MIR ranged from 1.2 to 31.1 per 1,000 male specimens. These data show that mosquitoes become infected by means other than by blood feeding, possibly by transovarial transmission. The placement of traps in tree canopies and in catch basins can be used to augment current practices of placement of traps near the ground for surveillance of mosquitoes infected with WNV and for studies of the ecology of WNV.

A carbon dioxide, heat and chemical lure trap for the bedbug, Cimex lectularius

Abstract A trap for the collection of bedbugs, Cimex lectularius Linnaeus (Hemiptera: Cimicidae), is described. The trap was baited with CO2 (50–400 mL/min), heat (37.2–42.2 °C) and a chemical lure comprised of 33.0 μg proprionic acid, 0.33 μg butyric acid, 0.33 μg valeric acid, 100 μg octenol and 100 μg L‐lactic acid, impregnated into a gel. Laboratory studies, conducted in a square arena measuring 183 cm on each side, showed that traps with and without baits captured adult bedbugs, but traps with CO2 emissions of 50–400 mL/min caught significantly (P < 0.05) more bedbugs than traps without CO2. In an infested unoccupied apartment, traps with heat and with or without the chemical lure were tested without CO2 on 29 trap‐days and with CO2 on 9 trap‐days. The numbers of bedbugs captured were 656 and 5898 in traps without and with CO2, respectively. The numbers of bedbugs of all development stages captured were significantly greater in traps with CO2 (χ2 = 15 942, d.f. = 1, P < 10−9). A non‐parametric two‐way analysis of variance evaluation of six different traps with or without CO2, heat or a chemical lure monitored over 19 trap‐days in an infested apartment showed that trap type was highly significant (n = 2833 bedbugs collected) (P < 10−7). The trap with CO2, heat and a chemical lure captured more bedbugs than the other traps, but only caught significantly more fourth and fifth instar nymphs than all other traps. Otherwise, the catches in this trap did not differ significantly from those caught by traps that contained CO2 and heat only. The total numbers of bedbugs collected for each trapping date (pooling all six traps) followed an exponential decline over the trapping period. This type of trap, which caught bedbugs in unoccupied apartments with and without furniture, and in an occupied apartment, may have utility in studying the ecology of bedbugs, in detecting bedbug infestations and in reducing numbers of bites by trapping host‐seeking bedbugs.

Dual-mode modeling of competitive and concentration-dependent sorption and desorption kinetics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soils

A radial dual-mode diffusion model is proposed for mass transfer of hydrophobic compounds in soil organic matter (SOM) that is able to predict competitive and concentration effects on sorption and desorption rates. On the basis of dual-mode sorption theory for glassy polymers the model assumes a population of specific adsorption sites (“holes”) interspersed uniformly in the dissolution (partition) domain of SOM. It further assumes Fickian diffusion in the dissolution domain and immobilization in the holes, with microscopic local equilibrium between the two domains. The model is solved numerically (Crank-Nicolson implicit method). Using parameters from single-solute equilibrium and kinetic experiments, the model adequately predicts batch transient sorption and desorption of phenanthrene (primary solute) as a function of pyrene (cosolute) concentration, and batch transient sorption of phenanthrene as a function of its own concentration, in two soils. The model shows that phenanthrene sorption approaches equilibrium faster with increasing cosolute or self-concentration owing to the concentration dependence of the apparent diffusivity, as predicted by a simple hole-plugging mechanism (i.e., fewer and fewer holes are available). Simulations show the effect to be greatest under infinite bath uptake conditions. Under finite bath conditions this positive effect on rate may be opposed by a batch process temporal bias present when the water:soil ratio is kept constant in a series of experiments. The bias is due to gradient driving force effects that slow the rate as a result of the decrease in percent of solute finally taken up by the solid as cosolute or concentration increases.

Effect of Compost Amendment or Straw Mulch on Potato Early Dying Disease

Single potato plants (Solanum tuberosum) cv. Superior were grown in field microplots to evaluate the effects of spent mushroom compost or straw mulch on early dying of potato caused by Verticillium dahliae and/or Pratylenchus penetrans. Prior to planting, soil was fumigated, placed in field microplots, and then infested with pathogens. Area under the senescence progress curve (AUSPC) was greater for plots infested with V. dahliae and/or P. penetrans than for noninfested plots. Plants grown in soil infested with both pathogens developed symptoms earlier than plants grown in soil infested with a single pathogen. Both V. dahliae and P. penetrans reduced yields; the combination of pathogens reduced marketable tuber yields by 22 to 44% (A- and B-sized tubers). Although the total number of tubers of all sizes was not affected by cultural or pathogen treatments, the addition of compost increased marketable tuber weight and decreased AUSPC. Soil amendment with spent mushroom compost may be a means of reducing the effects of potato early dying and increasing tuber yield when one or both pathogens are present.

Dispersion of spores released from an elevated line source within a wheat canopy

Turbulent dispersion of spores was studied near a source located inside a wheat canopy. Two colors of Lycopodium spores were released simultaneously at a steady rate from line sources at two heights (0.4–0.5 m and 0.7–0.8 m) in a 0.8 to 1.0 m tall crop. The number of spores of each color released was estimated by weighing the sources before and after each release. Aerial spore concentrations were measured at 2 and 4 m downwind of the sources using rotorods placed at four heights above the canopy and small suction traps at two heights inside the canopy. Concentrations near the ground were estimated from deposits on sticky glass microscope slides placed on the ground. Experiments were conducted on six different days. Friction velocities ranged from about 0.3 to 0.5 m s−1. The average horizontal fluxes of spores were calculated as the product of the observed concentrations and average wind speeds. At a distance of 2 m downwind from the sources, more than 16 to 44% of the flux of spores released from the lower source and more than 41 to 50% of the flux of spores released from the upper source were estimated to be above the canopy. These fluxes were compared with fluxes calculated using both a K-theory model and a random-flight-fluid-parcel-trajectory simulation model. The fluxes predicted by the models were generally considerably less than the values determined experimentally.

Control of Mosquitoes in Catch Basins in Connecticut With Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis, Bacillus sphaericus, and Spinosad

Abstract Catch basins are a major source of Culex pipiens pipiens, Cx. restuans, and Aedes japonicus in northeastern USA. VectoBac® CG (Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis [Bti]), VectoLex® CG (Bacillus sphaericus [Bs]), and VectoBac® 12AS (Bti), each applied at maximum label rate of 1.8 g, 1.8 g, and 0.193 ml per catch basin, respectively, significantly reduced the numbers of larvae for 1 wk. The dosages on the labels for treatment of mosquito larvae in catch basins, where mosquito breeding is continuous, are not adequate for providing long-term control in the northeastern USA without the need for frequent retreatment. When applied at 3 times the maximum label rate, VectoLex CG, VectoBac 12AS, and VectoBac CG significantly reduced the numbers of larvae for 5, 4, and 2 wk, respectively. A single application of VectoMax™ WSP (Bti + Bs) (1 pouch containing 10 g) per catch basin significantly reduced the numbers of 3rd and 4th instars and healthy pupae in catch basins in 2008, but numbers of 3rd and 4th instars in treated catch basins at 21 days after treatment had increased to 40% of the numbers in untreated catch basins. A 2nd treatment of 1 pouch per catch basin reduced the numbers of 3rd and 4th instars and healthy pupae to near zero for the next 4 wk, into the middle of September 2008. In 2009, VectoMax applied as 1 pouch per catch basin on July 1 and again on August 18 significantly reduced the numbers of healthy pupae throughout the summer until the end of September. A 2nd application of VectoMax to catch basins is likely needed during summer, when rainfall averages 13.7 in. (∼34.25 cm) during June through September, to keep the numbers of Culex and Ae. japonicus significantly reduced to lower risk of human exposure to West Nile virus. The application of 1 Natular™ XRT tablet, each weighing approximately 40.5 g (6.25% spinosad), to individual catch basins in 2009 significantly reduced the total numbers of larvae for 5 wk.

Horizontal and Vertical Transmission of West Nile Virus Genotype NY99 by Culex salinarius and Genotypes NY99 and WN02 by Culex tarsalis

Culex tarsalis is a superior horizontal and vertical vector of West Nile virus (WNV) compared with Culex salinarius. Culex salinarius transmitted WNV genotype NY99 (CT 2741-99 strain) horizontally to suckling mice at significantly lower rates than Cx. tarsalis on Days 8, 9, 10, and 12 post-infection, and Cx. salinarius transmitted WNV genotype NY99 to offspring at a lower vertical transmission infection rate than Cx. tarsalis. Culex tarsalis transmitted WNV genotypes NY99 and WN02 (CT S0084-08 strain) with equal efficiency. Daily percent horizontal transmission of genotype NY99 by Cx. tarsalis-infected per os and by intra-thoracic infection was not significantly different from daily transmission of genotype WN02 from Days 5-23 and Days 2-9 post-infection, respectively. Our findings do not support the previously published hypothesis that genotype NY99 was replaced in the New World by WN02 because of a shorter extrinsic incubation of WN02.

REBOUND OF POLLEN AND SPORES DURING DEPOSITION ON CYLINDERS BY INERTIAL IMPACTION

Abstract The relative retention or ‘sticking probability’ of ragweed pollen and Lycopodium spores impacting on glass cylinders and wheat stems was observed as the ratio of the number of panicles caught on nonsticky and sticky surfaces in a wind tunnel and the field. Their relative retention depended strongly on the kinetic energy of the particle just before impact. Below a critical threshold energy essentially all impacting particles were retained. Above this critical energy, retention decreased rapidly with increasing energy. Despite structural differences between ragweed and Lycopodium the onset of rebound for both occurred at essentially the same kinetic energy. Thus the speed for the onset of rebound of ragweed pollen was about 1.7 (equal to the square root of the ratio of the masses of Lycopodium and ragweed particles) times greater than the critical rebound speed for Lycopodium . Changes in wheat stem surface characteristics as the plant aged produced a measurable effect on the fraction of panicles rebounding from these surfaces.

Spatial and temporal variation of a defoliating plant disease and reduction in yield

Abstract The impact of foliar damage caused by diseases or insects on the yield of a crop depends on the spatial and temporal variation of the damage over the growing season. A two-dimensional numerical simulation model for predicting the spread and development of an aerially dispersed fungal disease was developed, using a stochastic representation of spore dispersal and deposition. The impact of plant damage over a season on final yield was estimated using a relationship between plant growth and the cumulative radiation intercepted by healthy leaves. The model was used to predict yield loss due to late blight in fields of inoculated potato plants. Measurements of solar radiation intercepted by the plant canopy were described well by Beers law with an extinction coefficient K =0.75. For a defoliating disease such as late blight, the model predicted greater yield loss for epidemics characterized by steep spatial gradients and strongly aggregated damage than for epidemics in which damage was distributed uniformly throughout the field.