Francisco Escobar

Spatial data infrastructures for cities in developing countries Lessons from the Bangkok experience

Abstract The cities of the developing world face major problems in managing growth and their urban infrastructure. The experiences of cities in the developed world have usually proved inappropriate in developing countries and consequently new and innovative solutions are continually being explored for these cities. Geographic information systems and the underlying spatial data infrastructures appear to offer significant potential to assist in managing human settlements in developing countries. In examining the status of spatial data infrastructures in developing countries, the first part of the paper compares cities in developing countries to those in the developed world. It then highlights issues facing developing countries in establishing spatial data infrastructures to support efficient urban land management. The paper describes the Bangkok Land Information System as an example of a city attempting to use spatial information technologies to manage the urban environment. This case study, together with the experience of the authors, are used to describe generic issues involved in the development of spatial data infrastructures for cities in similar socio-economic conditions. The paper provides a technical and institutional framework for the development of spatial data infrastructures for cities in developing countries. The paper concludes by suggesting that simple, low cost, project oriented, easily maintained and user-friendly spatial information technologies have the best chance of success.

A Self-Learning Multimedia Approach for Enriching GIS Education

Geographic information systems (GIS) are a rapidly evolving technology that has recently been integrated into undergraduate and postgraduate learning. GIS is also a multidisciplinary technology that has important relevance beyond its traditional disciplinary homes. This paper describes an initiative developed by the Department of Geomatics at the University of Melbourne, Australia, to create multimedia-based self-learning modules for teaching GIS to undergraduate and postgraduate students. The modules are designed to complement rather than replace existing approaches to learning such as formal lectures, practical laboratory assignments and major project requirements. The learning modules have been developed using Macromedia Director and are delivered interactively via the Internet. This paper examines the pedagogical issues of learning that accompany technological advancement and practical issues of module development. It discusses results from preliminary student evaluations and examines the broader learning opportunities associated with flexible delivery mechanisms such as the Internet. Further details and access to all modules are available at http:// www.geom.unimelb.edu.au/gisweb/

Assessing Walking and Cycling Environments in the Streets of Madrid: Comparing On-Field and Virtual Audits

Audit tools are useful for exploring the urban environment and its association with physical activity. Virtual auditing options are becoming increasingly available potentially reducing the resources needed to conduct these assessments. Only a few studies have explored the use of virtual audit tools. Our objective is to test if the Madrid Systematic Pedestrian and Cycling Environment Scan (M-SPACES) discriminates between areas with different urban forms and to validate virtual street auditing using M-SPACES. Three areas (N = 500 street segments) were selected for variation in population density. M-SPACES was used to audit street segments physically and virtually (Google Street View) by two researchers in 2013–2014. For both physical and virtual audits, all analyzed features score significantly different by area (p < 0.05). Most of the features showed substantial (ICC = 0.6–0.8) or almost perfect (ICC ≥ 0.8) agreement between virtual and physical audits, especially neighborhood permeability walking infrastructure, traffic safety, streetscape aesthetics, and destinations. Intra-rater agreement was generally acceptable (ICC > 0.6). Inter-rater agreement was generally poor (ICC < 0.4). Virtual auditing provides a valid and feasible way of measuring residential urban environments. Comprehensive auditor training may be needed to guarantee good inter-rater agreement.

Hierarchical spatial reasoning theory and GIS technology applied to the automated delineation of administrative boundaries

Throughout history, humankind has segmented and delineated the geographic environment in various ways to support administrative, political and economic activities. To date, the majority of spatial boundaries have been constructed in an uncoordinated manner with individual organisations generating individual boundaries to meet their own specific needs. As a result of this lack of coordination, there is a fragmentation of information over a series of boundary units, which not only limits the potential uses for data collected, but also the scope of analysis possible between boundary layers. The proposed solution outlined in this research involves the reorganisation of the spatial environment based on Hierarchical Spatial Reasoning (HSR) and the application of a GIS-based algorithm for the automated delineation of boundaries. By using this approach, it is expected that administrative boundaries can be formed through the aggregation of smaller units. This proposed system is focussed towards facilitating rapid and efficient cross analysis of data sets.

Risk factors and spatial distribution of urban rat infestations

Urban rat infestations have multifactorial causes and may result in severe public health and environmental problems, as well as heavy economic losses. The identification of putative environmental determinants of urban rat infestations and the mapping of areas prone to experiencing such infestations (hot spots) are crucial for effectively addressing intervention efforts. We investigated the associations between a selection of environmental factors and the occurrence of rat infestations in the city of Madrid, Spain. This was done by modelling 10,956 citizen-reported rat sightings from 2002 to 2008 using generalized additive models, both at municipality (Madrid) and district (Latina) levels. Increased age and density of housing, and decreased distance to vegetated areas, markets and cat feeding stations were factors associated with an increased risk of rat infestations. Risk maps for rat infestations were also developed and recurrent hot spots of rat activity were identified. Although a better fit to the data was obtained in the model for the smaller scale and possibly more environmentally homogenous study area of Latina, modelling the spatial distribution of rat sightings was useful for identifying factors associated with an increased risk of urban rat infestations, as well as for identifying hot spots of rat activity, providing local authorities with a practical tool for effectively targeting intervention efforts to high-risk situations based on the local environmental contexts.

Meeting the Need for GIS Skills in Developing Countries: The Case of Informal Settlements

Informal settlements are a chronic issue in developing countries. Management and formalisation processes require good spatial data and analytical tools. While software such as geographic information systems (GIS) are widely available, access to good data and skilled users may be limited. In this paper we suggest that digital multimedia learning tools, accessible via the World Wide Web (WWW) may be part of the solution. We present the rationale for, and structure of, a suite of prototype learning modules for neighbourhood operations. We illustrate the use of these operations by converting shack locations into population density maps for the Imizamo Yethu settlement near Cape Town, South Africa. This prototype forms a part of a larger web site that also includes background information, data sources and software.

Lost in the Mail: the Inherent Errors of Mapping Australia Post Postcodes to ABS Derived Postal Areas

It is now common practice, by users of geographic information, to link data held at the postcode level to that obtained from the national census. This paper examines the relationship between Australia Post (AP) postcodes and Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) derived postal areas - which are an approximation of the former based on aggregated census collection districts (CDs). A group of adjacent ABS postal areas in northwest Melbourne was compared with the true AP postcode areas they purported to represent and the discrepancies were investigated. Firstly, shape mismatches were studied and their potential impacts upon resource allocation decisions were assessed. Next, comparisons of areas were undertaken. It was found that, in established inner city urban areas, the two sets of boundaries were highly correlated. However, outer suburban neighborhoods were identified as being particularly prone to major areal discrepancies. The implications of mismatches between these two key boundary data sources may be severe, given that management decisions and the allocation of public and private resources are often based on spatial statistical analyses which use these data sets. The authors acknowledge ABS efforts in providing information at the levels of aggregation that society demands. The introduction of ABS postal areas data has undoubtedly facilitated the use of demographic data in many sectors; it has, however, also caused some problems, for instance, when users assume that ABS postal areas are identical to AP postcodes. These issues could easily be avoided with the inclusion of more comprehensive metadata documentation accompanying ABS data. Research is continuing to develop a method by which agencies may derive common boundaries for their administrative units, yet still meet their own individual data and sampling requirements.

Regulating the local availability of tobacco retailing in Madrid, Spain: a GIS study to evaluate compliance

Background In Spain, tobacco sales are limited to tobacco-exclusive stores and associated vending machines. A minimum of 150 m between stores is required, unless they exceed a legal sales threshold. Minimum distances to schools are recommended but not defined. We evaluated compliance with these regulations in Madrid, Spain. Methods Information about tobacco-exclusive stores and their sales volume was obtained in 2014. We used geographic information system to identify stores closer than 150 m between them and examine whether they exceeded the sales threshold. We estimated distances between stores and schools, considering different distance intervals (<150 m, 150–300 m and >300 m) and calculations (crow flies and street network). We assessed the association of area-level demographic and socioeconomic characteristics with the distribution of tobacco stores. Results 5.3% (34/638) of tobacco stores were within 150 m of each other. Among those, 76% (26/34) did not meet the regulation sales threshold. These stores were in areas with lower proportion of young population (<15 years) and higher proportion of people with university-level education. 75% (476/638) of stores were situated closer than 300 m to schools. No differences were identified in sociodemographic and economic characteristics by the store distance to schools. Conclusion Most tobacco stores are compliant with the regulations in Spain. However, these regulations are insufficient to reduce tobacco availability. More restrictive regulations are needed to limit the geographic distribution of tobacco retailers, and health criteria should also be considered in the current legislation. The evaluation of the Spanish regulatory model may provide useful insights for other jurisdictions looking to decrease the tobacco retail availability.

Who Knows Best? The Role of Stakeholder Knowledge in Land Use Models—An Example from Doñana, SW Spain

Participatory processes are increasingly used for understanding human-environment interaction problems and for developing common strategies for land resource management. These approaches are particularly important in areas where resources are shared by many stakeholders and yet there is no general agreement about how these resources should be managed. In many of these cases, detailed quantitative information about human-environment interaction problems (e.g. land degradation, erosion, water contamination etc.) is available to scientific institutions and land managers, but not easily accessible to other stakeholders. Conversely, key information, such as historical evolution of the landscape in the locality or the probable drivers of historic land change is often embedded informally in stakeholder communities but may not be accessible via conventional knowledge sharing pathways (scientific literature, reports, directives, policy briefs etc.). Land use models, in which qualitative and quantitative data can be combined at multiple levels and scales, provide an ideal bridge between highly detailed quantitative knowledge available from scientific stakeholders, and informal or unstructured knowledge about dynamics, evolution and change held by other parts of the stakeholder community. Many essential land use modeling activities, traditionally carried out by a single scientist in front of a computer, such as map comparison and subdivision or aggregation of land use categories, may in fact be better accomplished by working in groups with key stakeholders. Involvement of stakeholders in basic model decisions not only makes for a better model, it may also increase stakeholder confidence in the model and makes it more likely that the results of the model will be applied. We argue, with reference to the recent participatory modeling work undertaken in Donana, south-west Spain, that stakeholder information can be incorporated into land use models by engaging stakeholders as model co-developers, and structuring activities, where possible, so as to include their knowledge directly as parameters and variables. A participatory land use model is thus conceived as a cycle of alternating analytical and discursive activities from which useful results may be obtained, but which does not presuppose an optimum or “right answer”, or prioritize scientists’ knowledge above other kinds of knowledge available to the community.

Geomatic Approaches for Modeling Land Change Scenarios

Land change models can help scientists and users to understand change processes and design policies to reduce the negative impact of human activities on the earth system at scales ranging from global to local. With the development of increasingly large computing capacities, multiple computer-based models have been created, with the result that the specific domain covered by the umbrella term “modeling” has become rather vague. Even within the context of the spatiotemporal modeling of land use and cover changes (LUCC), the term “modeling” can have many different meanings. There is also an increasing interest in the literature in comparing the different land change models. One of the aims of this book is to contribute to these processes. We focus on geomatic modeling approaches applied in this context to land change, a term that has been used synonymously for a number of years with LUCC and seems to be overtaking it as the generally used term for this phenomenon. The objective of this book is also clear to see from the methods we have chosen and the subjects we address. This book deals first and foremost with spatially explicit data that can be mapped. However, its additional focus on land change and land change scenarios in the wider field of environmental and social dynamics give it a certain consistency with a view to practical applications. M.T. Camacho Olmedo (&) Departamento de Análisis Geográfico Regional y Geografía Física, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain e-mail: camacho@ugr.es M. Paegelow GEODE UMR 5602 CNRS, Université de Toulouse Jean Jaurès, Toulouse, France e-mail: paegelow@univ-tlse2.fr J.F. Mas Centro de Investigaciones en Geografía Ambiental, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico e-mail: jfmas@ciga.unam.mx F. Escobar Department of Geology, Geography and Environmental Sciences, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain e-mail: francisco.escobar@uah.es