Frank W. Bond

Measuring experiential avoidance: A preliminary test of a working model

The present study describes the development of a short, general measure of experiential avoidance, based on a specific theoretical approach to this process. A theoretically driven iterative exploratory analysis using structural equation modeling on data from a clinical sample yielded a single factor comprising 9 items. A fully confirmatory factor analysis upheld this same 9-item factor in an independent clinical sample. The operational characteristics of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ) were then examined in 8 additional samples. All totaled, over 2,400 participants were studied. As expected, higher levels of experiential avoidance were associated with higher levels of general psychopathology, depression, anxiety, a variety of specific fears, trauma, and a lower quality of life. The AAQ related to more specific measures of avoidant coping and to self-deceptive positivity, but the relation to psychopathology could not be fully accounted for by these alternative measures. The data provide some initial support for the model of experiential avoidance based on Relational Frame Theory that is incorporated into Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, and provides researchers with a preliminary measure for use in population-based studies on experiential avoidance.

Preliminary Psychometric Properties of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire-II: A Revised Measure of Psychological Inflexibility and Experiential Avoidance

The present research describes the development and psychometric evaluation of a second version of the Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ-II), which assesses the construct referred to as, variously, acceptance, experiential avoidance, and psychological inflexibility. Results from 2,816 participants across six samples indicate the satisfactory structure, reliability, and validity of this measure. For example, the mean alpha coefficient is .84 (.78-.88), and the 3- and 12-month test-retest reliability is .81 and .79, respectively. Results indicate that AAQ-II scores concurrently, longitudinally, and incrementally predict a range of outcomes, from mental health to work absence rates, that are consistent with its underlying theory. The AAQ-II also demonstrates appropriate discriminant validity. The AAQ-II appears to measure the same concept as the AAQ-I (r=.97) but with better psychometric consistency.

The role of acceptance and job control in mental health, job satisfaction, and work performance

Acceptance, the willingness to experience thoughts, feelings, and physiological sensations without having to control them or let them determine ones actions, is a major individual determinant of mental health and behavioral effectiveness in a more recent theory of psychopathology. This 2-wave panel study examined the ability of acceptance also to explain mental health, job satisfaction, and performance in the work domain. The authors hypothesized that acceptance would predict these 3 outcomes 1 year later in a sample of customer service center workers in the United Kingdom (N = 412). Results indicated that acceptance predicted mental health and an objective measure of performance over and above job control, negative affectivity, and locus of control. These beneficial effects of having more job control were enhanced when people had higher levels of acceptance. The authors discuss the theoretical and practical relevance of this individual characteristic to occupational health and performance.

Mediators of change in emotion-focused and problem-focused worksite stress management interventions.

Ninety volunteers in a media organization were randomly allocated to an Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT, n = 30) group that sought to enhance peoples ability to cope with work-related strain, an Innovation Promotion Program (IPP, n = 30) that helped individuals to identify and then innovatively change causes of occupational strain, or a waitlist control group (n = 30). Both interventions lasted 9 hr, spread over 3 months. Improvements in mental health and work-related variables were found following both interventions. As hypothesized, changes in outcome variables in the ACT condition were mediated only by the acceptance of undesirable thoughts and feelings. In the IPP condition, outcome change was mediated only by attempts to modify stressors. Discussion focused on the importance of understanding the mechanisms underpinning change in occupational stress management interventions.

Job control mediates change in a work reorganization: intervention for stress reduction

This longitudinal, quasi-experiment tested whether a work reorganization intervention can improve stress-related outcomes by increasing peoples job control. To this end, the authors used a participative action research (PAR) intervention that had the goal of reorganizing work to increase the extent to which people had discretion and choice in their work. Results indicated that the PAR intervention significantly improved peoples mental health, sickness absence rates, and self-rated performance at a 1-year follow-up. Consistent with occupational health psychology theories, increase in job control served as the mechanism, or mediator, by which these improvements occurred. Discussion focuses on the need to understand the mechanisms by which work reorganization interventions affect change.

The influence of psychological flexibility on work redesign: mediated moderation of a work reorganization intervention.

This quasi-experiment tested the extent to which an individual characteristic, psychological flexibility, moderated the effects of a control-enhancing work reorganization intervention in a call center. Results indicated that, compared with a control group, this intervention produced improvements in mental health and absence rates, particularly for individuals with higher levels of psychological flexibility. Findings also showed that these moderated intervention effects were mediated by job control. Specifically, the intervention enhanced perceptions of job control, and hence its outcomes, for the people who received it, especially for those who had greater psychological flexibility. Discussion highlights the benefits of understanding the processes (e.g., mediators, moderators, and mediated moderators) involved in work reorganization interventions.

The Ability of Psychological Flexibility and Job Control to Predict Learning, Job Performance, and Mental Health

Summary This longitudinal study tested the degree to which an individual characteristic, psychological flexibility, and a work organization variable, job control, predicted ability to learn new skills at work, job performance, and mental health, amongst call center workers in the United Kingdom (N = 448). As hypothesized, results indicated that job control, psychological flexibility, and the synergistic interaction between the two, predicted peoples ability to learn a new computer software program, as well as their mental health and job performance, which was objectively measured. Discussion focuses on the implications of these, and previous findings, for organizational behavior.

The Relative Importance of Psychological Acceptance and Emotional Intelligence to Workplace Well-Being.

Psychological acceptance (acceptance) and emotional intelligence (EI) are two relatively new individual characteristics that are hypothesised to affect well-being and performance at work. This study compares both of them, in terms of their ability to predict various well-being outcomes (i.e. general mental health, physical well-being, and job satisfaction). In making this comparison, the effects of job control are accounted for; this is a work organisation variable that is consistently associated with occupational health and performance. Results from 290 United Kingdom workers showed that EI did not significantly predict any of the well-being outcomes, after accounting for acceptance and job control. Acceptance predicted general mental health and physical well-being but not job satisfaction, and job control was associated with job satisfaction only. Discussion focuses on the theoretical and applied implications of these findings. These include support for the suggestion that not controlling ones thoughts and feelings (as advocated by acceptance) may have greater benefits for mental well-being than attempting consciously to regulate them (as EI suggests).

A randomised worksite comparison of acceptance and commitment therapy and stress inoculation training

In this comparative intervention study, 107 working individuals with above average levels of distress were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; n = 37); stress inoculation training (SIT; n = 37); or a waitlist control group (n = 33). The interventions were delivered to small groups in the workplace via two half-day training sessions. ACT and SIT were found to be equally effective in reducing psychological distress across a three month assessment period. Mediation analysis indicated that the beneficial impact of ACT on mental health resulted from an increase in psychological flexibility rather than from a change in dysfunctional cognitive content. Contrary to hypothesis, a reduction in dysfunctional cognitions did not mediate change in the SIT condition. Results suggest that the worksite may offer a useful, yet underutilised, arena for testing cognitive-behavioural theories of change.

Avoidance and cognitive fusion--central components in pain related disability? Development and preliminary validation of the Psychological Inflexibility in Pain Scale (PIPS).

Acceptance of pain and other associated negative private experiences has received increasing attention in recent years. This approach is in stark contrast to the traditional approach of reducing or controlling symptoms of pain. The empirical support for treatments emphasizing exposure and acceptance, such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy, is growing. However, to date, few instruments exist to assess the core processes in these types of treatments. This study describes the development and preliminary validation of the Psychological Inflexibility in Pain Scale. Principal components analysis (PCA) suggests a 2‐factor solution with a total of 16 items measuring avoidance of pain and cognitive fusion with pain. Results also indicate adequate reliability and validity for the scale. Implications of these findings for clinical assessment, as well as for research on pain related disability, are discussed along with suggestions for further research in this area.