Frank Wieber

Construal level mind-sets moderate self- and social stereotyping

Construal level theory suggests that events and objects can be represented at either a higher, more abstract level involving consideration of superordinate goals, desirability, global processing, and broad categorizations or a lower, more concrete level involving consideration of subordinate goals, feasibility, local processing, and narrow categorizations. Analogously, social targets (including the self) can be represented more broadly, as members of a group, or more narrowly, as individuals. Because abstract construals induce a similarity focus, they were predicted to increase the perceived fit between social targets and a salient social category. Accordingly, placing individuals into a more abstract construal mind-set via an unrelated task increased the activation and use of stereotypes of salient social groups, stereotype-consistent trait ratings of the self, group identification, and stereotype-consistent performance relative to more concrete construal mind-sets. Thus, nonsocial contextual influences (construal level mind-sets) affect stereotyping of self and others.

Promoting the translation of intentions into action by implementation intentions: behavioral effects and physiological correlates

The present review addresses the physiological correlates of planning effects on behavior. Although intentions to act qualify as predictors of behavior, accumulated evidence indicates that there is a substantial gap between even strong intentions and subsequent action. One effective strategy to reduce this intention–behavior gap is the formation of implementation intentions that specify when, where, and how to act on a given goal in an if-then format (“If I encounter situation Y, then I will initiate action Z!”). It has been proposed that implementation intentions render the mental representation of the situation highly accessible and establish a strong associative link between the mental representations of the situation and the action. These process assumptions have been examined in behavioral research, and in physiological research, a field that has begun to investigate the temporal dynamics of and brain areas involved in implementation intention effects. In the present review, we first summarize studies on the cognitive processes that are central to the strategic automation of action control by implementation intentions. We then examine studies involving critical samples with impaired self-regulation. Lastly, we review studies that have applied physiological measures such as heart rate, cortisol level, and eye movement, as well as electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies on the neural correlates of implementation intention effects. In support of the assumed processes, implementation intentions increased goal attainment in studies on cognitive processes and in critical samples, modulated brain waves related to perceptual and decision processes, and generated less activity in brain areas associated with effortful action control. In our discussion, we reflect on the status quo of physiological research on implementation intentions, methodological and conceptual issues, related research, and propose future directions.

Attenuating the Escalation of Commitment to a Faltering Project in Decision-Making Groups: An Implementation Intention Approach

When groups receive negative feedback on their progress toward a set goal, they often escalate rather than temper their commitment. To attenuate such escalation, we suggest initiating a self-distancing response (i.e., taking the perspective of a neutral observer) by forming implementation intentions when, where, and how to act (i.e., making if-then plans). Implementation intentions should help groups to translate a self-distancing intention into action. In line with this reasoning, only groups that had added implementation intentions to their goal to make optimal investment decisions reduced their high levels of investment (Study 1) or maintained their moderate levels of investment (Study 2) after negative feedback. Groups that had merely formed goal intentions, however, escalated even when their decision goal was supplemented with self-distancing instructions (Study 1), and they escalated as much as control groups without such a goal (Study 2). Implications for improving group decision making by implementation intentions are discussed.

Visual Attention and Goal Pursuit Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets Affect Breadth of Attention

Mindset theory suggests that a deliberative mindset entails openness to information in one’s environment, whereas an implemental mindset entails filtering of information. We hypothesized that this open- versus closed-mindedness influences individuals’ breadth of visual attention. In Studies 1 and 2, we induced an implemental or deliberative mindset, and measured breadth of attention using participants’ length estimates of x-winged Müller-Lyer figures. Both studies demonstrate a narrower breadth of attention in the implemental mindset than in the deliberative mindset. In Study 3, we manipulated participants’ mindsets and measured the breadth of attention by tracking eye movements during scene perception. Implemental mindset participants focused on foreground objects, whereas deliberative mindset participants attended more evenly to the entire scene. Our findings imply that deliberative versus implemental mindsets already operate at the level of visual attention.

Supporting Sustainable Food Consumption: Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) Aligns Intentions and Behavior.

With growing awareness that sustainable consumption is important for quality of life on earth, many individuals intend to act more sustainably. In this regard, interest in reducing meat consumption is on the rise. However, people often do not translate intentions into actual behavior change. To address this intention-behavior gap, we tested the self-regulation strategy of mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). Here, people identify and imagine a desired future and current obstacles standing in its way. They address the obstacles with if-then plans specifying when, where, and how to act differently. In a 5-week randomized controlled experimental study, we compared an information + MCII intervention with an information-only control intervention. As hypothesized, only MCII participants’ intention of reducing their meat consumption was predictive of their actual reduction, while no correspondence between intention and behavior change was found for control participants. Participants with a moderate to strong intention to reduce their meat consumption reduced it more in the MCII than in the control condition. Thus, MCII helped to narrow the intention-behavior gap and supported behavior change for those holding moderate and strong respective intentions.

Planning High Performance : Can Groups and Teams Benefit from Implementation Intentions?

1. Organizational Planning: The Psychology of Performance Introduction Michael Frese, Michael D. Mumford, and Carter Gibson 2. Planning Processes: Relevant Cognitive Operations Michael D. Mumford, Jensen T. Mecca, and Logan L. Watts 3. The Planning Fallacy: When Plans Lead to Optimistic Forecasts Roger Buehler and Dale Griffin 4. Personality and Planning: The Interplay Between Linear and Holistic Processing Anna M. Engel and Julius Kuhl 5. Planning: A Mediator in Goal Setting Theory Gary P. Latham and Alana S. Arshoff 6. Emotions and Planning in Organizations Shane Connelly and Genevieve Johnson 7. Planning High Performance: Can Groups and Teams Benefit from Implementation Intentions? J. Lukas Thurmer, Frank Wieber, and Peter M. Gollwitzer 8. Planning for Innovation: The Critical Role of Agility Samuel T. Hunter, Melissa Gutworth, Matthew P. Crayne, and Bradley S. Jayne 9. The Five Perils of Team Planning: Regularities and Remedies Alejandra C. Montoya, Dorothy R. Carter, Jessie Martin, and Leslie A. DeChurch 10. Examining the Multi-Level Effects of Organizational Planning on Performance Nastassia Savage, Shannon Marlow, and Eduardo Salas 11. Expertise in Organizational Planning - Impact on Performance Kenneth N. McKay, Wout van Wezel, and Toni Waefler 12. Biases as Constraints on Planning Performance Dawn L. Eubanks, Daniel Read, and Yael Grushka-Cockayne 13. Planning by Leaders: Factors Influencing Leader Planning Performance Michael D. Mumford, Vincent Giorgini, and Logan Steele 14. Strategic Planning and Firm Performance: Towards a Better Understanding of a Controversial Relationship Laura B. Cardinal, C. Chet Miller, Markus Kreutzer, and Candace TenBrink 15. Planning and Entrepreneurship Michael M. Gielnik, Michael Frese, and Miriam S. Stark 16. Time Management and Procrastination Wendelien van Eerde 17. Training and Development for Organizational Planning Skills Holly K. Osburn, Jenifer M. Hatcher, and Bianca M. Zongrone

Planning and performance in small groups: Collective implementation intentions enhance group goal striving

There are two key motivators to perform well in a group: making a contribution that (a) is crucial for the group (indispensability) and that (b) the other group members recognize (identifiability). We argue that indispensability promotes setting collective (“We”) goals whereas identifiability induces individual (“I”) goals. Although both goals may enhance performance, they should align with different strategies. Whereas pursuing collective goals should involve more cooperation, pursuing individual goals should involve less cooperation. Two experiments support this reasoning and show that planning out collective goals with collective implementation intentions (cIIs or “We-plans”) relies on cooperation but planning out individual goals with individual implementation intentions (IIs or “I-plans”) does not. In Experiment 1, three-member groups first formed a collective or an individual goal and then performed a first round of a physical persistence task. Groups then either formed a respective implementation intention (cII or II) or a control plan and then performed a second round of the task. Although groups with cIIs and IIs performed better on a physical persistence task than respective control groups, only cII groups interacted more cooperatively during task performance. To confirm the causal role of these interaction processes, Experiment 2 used the same persistence task and manipulated whether groups could communicate: When communication was hindered, groups with cIIs but not groups with IIs performed worse. Communication thus qualifies as a process making cIIs effective. The present research offers a psychology of action account to small group performance.

Decoupling Goal Striving From Resource Depletion by Forming Implementation Intentions

Previous research has identified a variety of ways to mitigate the ego-depletion effect (ie, whereby exerting self-control in a first task impairs performance in a second self-control task). In the present chapter, we discuss if–then planning (ie, forming implementation intentions; IIs) as an easily applicable self-regulation tool that can help individuals and groups to overcome major threats to effective task performance. After a short overview of research on ego depletion, the moderators of the ego-depletion effect, and recent conceptual developments, we review studies that have directly tested II effects on ego depletion. We differentiate between studies investigating whether IIs can prevent individuals from becoming depleted from studies exploring whether IIs can help participants to overcome the negative consequences of being depleted in subsequent self-control tasks. Because the self-regulation threat of being depleted often cooccurs with other self-regulation threats, we then expand our view to determine whether IIs can have beneficial effects not only with regard to self-regulatory resource depletion but also to other major threats to self-regulation: impulse control and cue exposure, emotional and social distress, lapse-activated pattern and abstinence violations, impairments in self-monitoring and self-awareness, the disruptive influence of other people, and alcohol intoxication. We also review research on the regulation of detrimental self-states (eg, being anxious) by IIs, and on new methods to strengthen self-regulation by combining IIs with helpful strategies such as self-affirmation, setting autonomous goals, and mental contrasting. Finally, we discuss all of these findings and their implications for both the original and more recent conceptual explications of the ego-depletion phenomenon as well as for II research, and point to venues for future investigation.

Planning and the Control of Action

This chapter examines the role of spontaneous and strategic planning in turning an individual’s knowledge into action. The authors introduce specific if-then plans regarding when, where, and how to act and discuss how such implementation intentions (IIs) support goal attainment. They then differentiate two ways in which IIs can be formed on the basis of goal-related knowledge. For spontaneously formed IIs they highlight the importance of the accessibility of goal-relevant knowledge. For strategically formed IIs they point to the importance of systematically selecting relevant goal-relevant knowledge and translating it into IIs by using the Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions (MCII) self-regulation strategy. The interplay of automatic and reflective processes is a focus of discussion. The authors suggest that strategic planning of the automatic activation of goal-relevant knowledge can support reflective decision-making and goal-directed actions through use of context-sensitive reminders.