Tobias Heikamp

Positive Orientation Across Three Cultures

Positive orientation is a new construct posed at the core of positive evaluations about oneself, life, and the future. Previous findings attested to its associations with health, well-being, and achievement. In the present study, the authors traced standard measures of self-esteem, life satisfaction, and dispositional optimism to a common factor attesting to a similar factorial structure in Japan, Germany, and Italy. Partial invariance at both metric and scalar levels further corroborates generality of positive orientation across these 3 countries.

Gender differences in school achievement: The role of self-regulation.

This study examined whether different aspects of self-regulation (i.e., emotion and behavior regulation) account for gender differences in German and mathematics achievement. Specifically, we investigated whether higher school achievement by girls in comparison to boys can be explained by self-regulation. German and mathematics achievement were assessed in a sample of 53 German fifth graders (19 boys, 34 girls) using formal academic performance tests (i.e., reading, writing, mathematics) and teachers ratings (i.e., grades in German and mathematics). Moreover, teachers rated childrens behavior regulation using the Self-Control Scale (SCS-K-D). Childrens self-reported strategies of emotion regulation were assessed with the Questionnaire for the Measurement of Stress and Coping in Children and Adolescents (SSKJ 3-8). Age and intelligence (CFT 20-R) were included as control variables. Analyses of mean differences showed that girls outperformed boys in German achievement and behavior regulation. Regression analyses, using a bootstrapping method, revealed that relations between gender and German achievement were mediated by behavior regulation. Furthermore, we found a suppression effect of behavior regulation on the relation between gender and mathematics achievement: boys mathematics achievement was underestimated when the analyses did not control for behavior regulation. We discuss these results from a developmental perspective and within the theoretical framework of self-regulation and achievement.

Cultural Variations in Mothers' Intuitive Theories: a preliminary report on interviewing mothers from five nations about their socialization of children's emotions

Parental intuitive theories comprise values, goals, expectations, and cultural beliefs about the nature of parenting and its function for childrens development of competence. This article introduces a research design to study mothers intuitive theories about their socialization of childrens emotions, as a means of understanding the cultural meaning of childrens emotional development. The intention is not to present a traditional empirical report, but to provide a heuristic for future research. The authors illustrate the basic assumptions, methods, and approach to data analysis used in the research design, using a five-nation cross-cultural study as an example of this methodology. For purposes of illustration, examples of mothers responses during interviews are included, about their intuitive theories of emotion socialization – that is, their attributions about child behavior, views about their parenting roles and socialization practices, and the salience of particular emotions relative to cultural models of independence and interdependence. This approach provides a more sophisticated sense of cultural similarities and variations within and between nations than has been available in prior research. The importance of parents intuitive theories for the investigation of the cultural meaning of emotion socialization and future study directions are discussed.

German and Korean mothers' sensitivity and related parenting beliefs

This study contributes to a differentiated understanding of maternal sensitivity in cultural and situational context. We investigated differences and similarities in German and Korean mothers maternal sensitivity. We interviewed 92 German and 100 Korean mothers of first graders about their preference for proactive (anticipating childrens needs) or reactive sensitivity (responding to childrens direct cues) in different scenarios. Related parenting beliefs were assessed by asking the mothers to explain the reasons why they would prefer specific parenting behaviors. Results revealed significant cultural differences in reactive vs. proactive sensitivity preferences. Overall, German mothers were more likely to indicate that a mother should respond reactively and less likely to report that a mother should act proactively than were Korean mothers. Korean mothers gave preference to both reactive and proactive sensitivity depending on the scenario. With regard to parenting beliefs, analyses revealed that German and Korean mothers who preferred reactive sensitivity mainly explained their choices as attempts to encourage childrens development of independence. In contrast, Korean and German mothers with a preference for proactive sensitivity were more likely to report that mothers would assist their children due to their immaturity in dealing with emotional distress. Results are discussed in the framework of the different meanings and functions of maternal sensitivity for socialization in different cultural contexts.

Kindergarten children's attachment security, inhibitory control, and the internalization of rules of conduct

Starting from research on relations between attachment and the development of self-regulation, the present study aimed to investigate research questions on relations among inhibitory control, internalization of rules of conduct (i.e., behavior regulation, concern occasioned by others transgressions, confession, reparation after wrongdoing), and attachment security. Attachment security and internalization of rules of conduct of German kindergarten children (N = 82) were assessed by maternal reports. Childrens inhibitory control was measured with the Stop-task. Regression analyses revealed that inhibitory control was positively related to attachment security and to internalization of rules of conduct. Mediational analysis using a bootstrapping approach indicated an indirect effect of attachment security on internalization processes via inhibitory control. Implications for further research on the development of inhibitory control and internalization of rules of conduct are discussed.

Development of self-regulation in context

In this articIe, we aim to contribute to an understanding of the limits of intentionality from a child development perspective. Here, we define intentionality as goal-directed agentie behavior. Intentions encompass cognitive representations of goals and of means that organize behavior and that are directed to a particular goal (i.e., action plan; see Gollwitzer, 2012; Wieber, Thürmer and Gollwitzer, this volume). Intentions also incIude the motivation to pursue a goal in order to achieve a desired outcome (Bratman, 1999; Malle, Moses and Baldwin, 2001; Iomasello, Carpenter, Call, Behne and Moll, 2005). More precisely, we focus on self-regulation as intentional behavior that is constitutive for human agency. We conceive of self-regulation as the motivation and ability to guide goal-directed behavior over time and across different situational contexts in the process of goal attainment in order to transfer intentions into behavior and to achieve a desired result (Karoly, 1993). Self-regulation as intentional behavior can be limited by internal (e.g., temperament) and extern al factors (e.g., parenting) throughout development. In this regard, limits of intentionality may induce incomplete goal attainment (Suchodoletz and Achtziger, 2011; Wieber, Gollwitzer and Seebaß, 2011). Contextual conditions can have positive and negative influences on the development of self-regulation. Interactionist perspectives point to the active role of the agentie individual within adynamie person-environment system (developmental contextualism; Lerner and Walls, 1999; Magnusson and Stattin, 2006). Cognitive, emotional, and motivational variables (e.g., self-representations) and underlying biological processes are assumed to shape individuals interactions with their environments, and vice versa (see also Blair and McKinnon, this volume). Self-regulation develops through individuals intentional activities in different contexts during development throughout the life-span. Referring to Bronfenbrenners bioecological approach (Bronfenbrenner and Ceci, 1994), the childs mierosystem interacts reciprocally with the immediate environment, for instance in the family or the school context. Ihis incIudes bidirectional effects