Frits M. van der Meer

Western European Civil Service Systems: A Comparative Analysis

According to available geological information, Europe started off as a collection of smaller tectonic plates situated somewhere in the southern hemisphere. Slowly drifting northwards, forces of nature moulded these smaller entities over time into the continent we know. On the basis of this historical geological information, we are relatively safe to presume that Europe has, at least, a geographical identity. Comparing civil service systems during earlier phases in the Civil Service project, it was more or less implicitly taken for granted that Western Europe possesses more than a geographical distinctiveness from other regions. In Bekke and Van der Meer (2000) extensive attention is paid to the historical institutional dimension of Western European civil service systems. The historical paragraphs highlighted many common features in the development of Western European civil service systems, without underestimating existing national particularities. Most Western European civil service systems show continuous reform efforts. Using the framework developed by Bekke, Perry and Toonen (1996) we assess (the implications of) recent empirical research.

Modernization and reform of Dutch waterboards: resilience or change?

In this article, we look into the question whether the Dutch waterboards can still be considered resilient institutions, effectively adapting to changing circumstances as often described in literature. We argue that current waterboards resemble the CPR management form of old only in name. Their institutional nature has changed considerably, thus providing a challenge to the future of CPR water management in the Netherlands. We examine not only the implications for the institutional performance and future of the waterboard system but also discuss possible ways to regenerate the system. With respect to the latter (changes in), the system of governance and community base character of waterboards are examined.

Public service bargains in Dutch top civil service

In this article the position, role and functioning of the highest ranking officials in the Dutch civil service is discussed, using the theory of public service bargains (PSBs) as outlined by Hood and Lodge (2006). For the notion of a shift in PSB to be studied, we need a clear view on the initial PSB. We therefore first describe Dutch society and politics and the type of bargain traditionally found in Dutch public service, and briefly consider the reforms which might have had an impact on the PSB. Next, we analyse the key aspects of the current PSB. These include elements of reward, competency, and loyalty and responsibility. The current PSB is assessed in terms of Hood’s typology. While embedded in the specificities and history of the Dutch political—administrative system, a number of elements point to a shift towards a managerial bargain. As a result, we find a new, hybrid PSB to have emerged.

Rethinking the ‘Public Service Bargain’: the changing (legal) position of civil servants in Europe

It can be argued that because of the rise of New Public Management and the growing dominance of labor law and HRM practices, the so-called ‘traditional’ public law formulation of the position of civil servants has come under pressure in a number of Western European countries in recent decades and have shaken the ‘bargain’ agreed between the political and administrative leaders since the Second World War. By contrast, in Central and Eastern Europe and Britain, new Weberian-type civil service legislation has been introduced. In this analysis, we examine both apparent opposites from a public sector bargains perspective and find that European countries are at a crossroads in their reflection on the ‘bargain’. Points for practitioners For practitioners in this field two considerations are important to note. The first is that while the discussion about the (legal) position of civil servants within their political-administrative system may seem to be a national debate, in essence it forms part of a more general debate that is conducted all across Europe. The second is that both theoretically and empirically, two dimensions of the bargain have to be distinguished, namely on the one hand the material labor conditions (pay, job protection, etc.) and on the other hand the values of bureaucracy (impartiality, integrity, loyalty, etc.). As our empirical analysis shows, these two dimensions have become increasingly independent from each other in the discussions and reforms in various countries over recent decades. In other words, managerial reforms in terms of material labor conditions have in practice been paired with the renewed emphasis on Weberian values of bureaucracy. Whether this decoupling is sustainable from a policy point of view in the long run (i.e. whether Weberian-style labor conditions are or are not conditional for high levels of Weberian values of bureaucracy), remains to be seen.

The Changing Role of the Senior Civil Service in Dutch National Government

Publications about changes in the senior civil service in the Netherlands in the past few years (de Vries & van Dam, 1998; Bovens, 2000; van der Meer & Dijkstra 2000; Noordegraaf, 2000; Nieuwenkamp, 2001; ‘t Hart et al., 2002; van der Meer 2002, 2004) are part of a general increase in the study of the civil service (Bekke et al., 1996; Verheyen, 1999; Bekke and Van der Meer, 2000; Burns & Bowornwathana, 2001). These changes are a consequence of developments in the wider political and societal environment which particularly affect the role of the senior civil service as a policy and political actor. Two particular developments are of importance here. First, while never really functioning in a vacuum, the senior civil service is becoming increasingly intertwined in a network of administrative officials at international, supranational, and sub-national levels. Moreover, relations with non-governmental or semi-governmental actors have intensified, insofar as these actors are involved in and responsible for the production and (possibly) provision of collective interest services. Second, there has been a deeper and more fundamental realignment of ideas about the role of the state and government in society. Does or should the state assume an active role, taking initiatives or should it play a more intermediary, enabling role? Changing expectations in this regard may be expected to have a direct bearing on the position of the senior civil service. The need for that realignment has become even more manifest given the societal turmoil and national identity crisis the Netherlands is experiencing with the rise (2002) and assassination of Fortuyn (2003) and continuing (2005) with a withering of public confidence in national and European government elites.

Civil Service Systems and the Challenges of the 21st Century

During the past decades’, civil service systems (CSS) have come under intense scrutiny. The role and position of the civil service as core actors in the public sector has been seriously questioned by political pundits and other actors in society and academia. Allegedly, the central position of civil servants in the political-administrative and societal systems is eroding. It is argued that the supposed monopoly of the civil service in public service delivery has gradually broken down. Some visionaries even expect the demise of the civil service as we know it (Demmke 2004; 2005). Perhaps this particular prophecy is grossly exaggerated, sooner reflecting the author’s wish than an empirical fact. Yet, it cannot be denied that, due to a variety of reasons, CSS have increasingly been influenced by a range of internal and external pressures prompted by changes in the institutional context. These internal and environmental changes will be examined in this volume and will be introduced in this chapter. Taken together, these changes supposedly amount to a new, more fragmented order in the public domain generally referred to nowadays as multi-level governance. In this supposed new order, governments and CSS have to find their place. Although there appears to be some common understanding in the scientific community with respect to the nature of these wide-ranging change processes, the analysis of the actual consequences for CSS has received less attention.

Civil Service Systems in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis

According to available geological information, Europe started off as a collection of smaller tectonic plates situated somewhere in the southern hemisphere. Slowly drifting northwards, forces of nature molded these smaller entities over time into the continent we know. On the basis of this historical geological information we are relatively safe to presume that Europe has, at least, a geographical identity. Comparing civil service systems during earlier phases in the Civil Service project, it was more or less implicitly taken for granted that Western Europe possesses more than a geographical distinctiveness from other regions. In Van der Meer (2012) extensive attention is paid to the historical institutional dimension of Western European civil service systems. The historical paragraphs highlighted many common features in the development of Western European civil service systems, without underestimating existing national particularities. Most Western European civil service systems show continuous reform efforts. Using the framework developed by Bekke, Perry and Toonen (1996) we will assess (the implications of) recent empirical research.

Civil Servants in the Enabling Framework State of the 21st Century

Many observations in this volume concern changes and transformations in civil service systems (CSS), which have been defined as mediating institutions for the mobilization of human resources in the service of the state in a given territory (Bekke, Perry and Toonen, 1996: 2). How they work and operate has changed considerably in recent years. Whatever the nature of these changes, the desire for a solid and reliable civil service, based on the rule of law, has been pivotal to public sector reforms in various regions of the world, and certainly in Central and Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. In Western Europe and Anglo-American countries, the reform efforts were more focused on establishing a flexible CSS by means of new public management (NPM) reforms. Where systems have not been able to achieve solid results to developing and maintaining a CSS strategy aimed at reform, especially when such reforms are not anchored in a Rechtsstaat tradition, deformation and regression have become more likely outcomes than reform and progression

Administrative elites in the Netherlands from 1980 to 2011: making the invisible visible

The Dutch top civil service level has seldom been described in ‘elitist’ terms; befitting a country with a strong egalitarian social culture. Though formally open to outside recruitment, in practice the (top) civil service in central government is a rather closed system. There is relatively little occupational mobility between these civil servants and political officeholders, and virtually none between the public and the private sectors. However, some initiatives have recently been taken to improve this external mobility. New Public Management has had little impact upon the structure and functioning of the Dutch administrative elites. More important for the positioning and functioning of these civil servants has been the creation of the Senior Executive Service, and, within the SES, the top management group. By creating this career system at the very top of the civil service at the central level, the elite nature of the top civil servants has been reinforced. Points for practitioners The structure and functioning of the Dutch civil service has not been influenced by New Public Management (NPM). The rotation of positions at the top, through the Senior Public Service, is mainly inspired by the effort to decrease the compartmentalization of government departments. What has changed is the environment in which higher civil servants work, with Parliament, media and citizens demanding fast and tangible results.

Pre-Napoleonic centralization in a decentralized polity: the case of the Dutch Republic

The interest in the origins of present-day government is often derived from the thought that its current functioning and problems can be at least partially explained by the institutional choices made at the moment of origin. The institutional reforms made during the so-called French (or Napoleonic) era divert attention from the at least equally relevant Ancien Régime reform origins. For a thorough understanding of the origins of a ‘modern’ governmental system we have to examine the Ancien Régime period more closely. This is highly relevant in the Dutch case. Contrary to popular opinion, during the Republic a more centralized system of government did gradually develop from the two power centers (Stadtholders and Estates-General). Points for practitioners The importance of the Dutch case is that it highlights, due to the very absence of monarchical absolutism, the deeper mechanisms working towards centralizing (the system of) governance.