G.J. van Ingen Schenau

The constrained control of force and position in multi-joint movements.

In many arm or leg movements the hand or foot has to exert an external force on the environment. Based on an inverse dynamical analysis of cycling, it is shown that the distribution of net moments in the joints needed to control the direction of the external force is often opposite to the direction of joint displacements associated with this task. Kinetic and kinematic data were obtained from five experienced cyclists during ergometer cycling by means of film analysis and pedal force measurement. An inverse dynamic analysis, based on a linked segments model, yielded net joint moments, joint powers and muscle shortening velocities of eight leg muscles. Activation patterns of the muscles were obtained by means of surface electromyography. The results show that the transfer of rotations in hip, knee and ankle joints into the translation of the pedal is constrained by conflicting requirements. This occurs between the joint moments necessary to contribute to joint power and the moments necessary to establish a direction of the force on the pedal which allows this force to do work on the pedal. Co-activation of mono-articular agonists and their bi-articular antagonists appear to provide a unique solution for these conflicting requirements: bi-articular muscles appear to be able to control the desired direction of the external force on the pedal by adjusting the relative distribution of net moments over the joints while mono-articular muscles appear to be primarily activated when they are in the position to shorten and thus to contribute to positive work. Examples are given to illustrate the universal nature of this constrained control of force (external) and position (joint). Based on this study and published data it is suggested that different processes may underlie the organization of the control of mono- and bi-articular muscles.

Some fundamental aspects of the biomechanics of overground versus treadmill locomotion

ABSTRACT INGEN SCHENAU, G.J. VAN. Some fundamental aspects of the biomechanics of overground versus treadmill locomotion. Med. Sci. Sporis Exercise, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 257–261, 1980. The literature shows a wide difference of opinion about the mechanical equality of, or difference between treadmill and overground locomotion. This difference in opinion is often related to the coordinate system which implicitly or explicitly is used. With help of a few theoretical examples of energy calculations this paper shows that the description of treadmill locomotion with respect to a fixed coordinate system can lead to faulty conclusions. It is concluded that as long as the beltspeed is constant a coordinate system should be used which moves with the belt. In such a system no mechanical difference exists in comparison with overground locomotion with respect to a fixed coordinate system. All differences found in locomotion patterns must therefore originate from other than mechanical causes.

Force, velocity and energy flow during the overarm throw in female handball players

The overarm throw of 56 female handball players was analysed cinematographically. The time courses of the ball velocity, the force on the ball, the energy flow to the ball as well as the velocities of wrist, elbow and hip were calculated. The mean ball velocity at release was 17.2 m s-1. The major part (73%) of the work on the ball appeared to be done in the last 50 ms of the throw. It is shown that high maximal segmental velocities are important pre-requisites for an optimal flow of energy to the ball during that last phase of the throw. The consecutive actions of body segments from larger proximal segments to the relatively smaller distal segments seem to be connected to intrinsic muscle properties and to a flow of energy from proximal to distal segments.

Wheelchair ergonomics and physiological testing of prototypes

Abstract Two hand rim propelled wheelchairs, a daily-use (active) wheelchair (R) and a marathon sports wheelchair (S), were compared to a three-wheeled crank (C) and a (synchronic) lever (L) propelled wheelchair. All wheelchairs were analysed with respect to cardio-respiratory parameters ([Vdot] E, [Vdot] O2 , HR, RER), power output and gross mechanical efficiency during a continuous exercise test (speed of the treadmill V = 0·96 ms-1; every third minute a one degree increase of the slope). Non-wheelchair users (NW: N = 10) were compared to wheelchair sportsmen (WS: N = 3). The cardio-respiratory strain of hand rim propulsion increases more swiftly for both R and S wheelchairs than for the C and L systems. Mechanical efficiency is significantly lower for the hand rim wheelchairs with a remarkably low efficiency for the S wheelchair. The S wheelchair however showed the lowest energy losses and a lower [Vdot]O 2 compared to the R wheelchair, these being important modalities for high speed and long distance ...

Power equations in endurance sports

This paper attempts to clarify the formulation of power equations applicable to a variety of endurance activities. An accurate accounting of the relationship between the metabolic power input and the mechanical power output is still elusive, due to such issues as storage and recovery of strain energy and the differing energy costs of concentric and eccentric muscle actions. Nevertheless, an instantaneous approach is presented which is based upon the application of conventional Newtonian mechanics to a rigid segment model of the body, and does not contain assumptions regarding the exact nature of segmental interactions--such as energy transfer, etc. The application of the equation to running, cycling, speed skating, swimming and rowing is discussed and definitions of power, efficiency, and economy are presented.

Active drag related to velocity in male and female swimmers

Propulsive arm forces of 32 male and 9 female swimmers were measured during front crawl swimming using arms only, in a velocity range between 1.0 m s-1 and 1.8 m s-1. At constant velocity, the measured mean propulsive force Fp equals the mean active drag force (Fd). It was found that Fd is related to the swimming velocity v raised to the power 2.12 +/- 0.20 (males) or 2.28 +/- 0.35 (females). Although many subjects showed rather constant values of Fd/v2, 12 subjects gave significantly (p less than 0.01) stronger or weaker quadratic relationships. Differences in drag force and coefficient of drag between males and females (drag: 28.9 +/- 5.1 N, 20.4 +/- 1.9 N, drag coefficient: 0.64 +/- 0.09, 0.54 +/- 0.07 respectively) are especially apparent at the lowest swimming velocity (1 m s-1), which become less at higher swimming velocities. Possible explanations for the deviation of the power of the velocity from the ideal quadratic dependency are discussed.

Control of an external force in leg extensions in humans.

1. We investigated the hypothesis that mono‐ and bi‐articular muscles perform different functions: the former are chiefly dependent on their mechanical advantage, while the latter are considered to be mainly concerned with controlling the direction of an external force. 2. Seven subjects were asked to exert a constant external force in various directions from three different positions. Feedback was given on the amplitude (300 and 600 N) and direction of the force vector. 3. During each trial the position of the subject was registered. Ground reaction force and muscle activity (EMG) from the main mono‐ and bi‐articular upper leg muscles were recorded. Link segment modelling was used to obtain net moments about the knee and hip joints. For each muscle the mechanical advantage was calculated in each force direction. 4. The task of controlling the ground reaction force was performed with little interindividual variation as reflected by the variability of the different force and EMG variables. 5. A linear relationship between the difference in activity of rectus femoris and hamstrings and the difference in net moment around the knee and hip was found. This relationship showed very high correlation coefficients of 0.96 (300 N) and 0.97 (600 N) and was independent of position. Mean correlations between this activity difference and the angle of the force vector were also high: ‐0.95 (300 N) and ‐0.94 (600 N). 6. The mono‐ as well as the bi‐articular muscles increased in activity when a larger mechanical advantage could be obtained from them, except for the biceps femoris (short head). 7. The results support the hypothesis that bi‐articular muscles have a unique role in controlling the distribution of net moments about the joints, and as a consequence, in controlling the direction of the external force exerted on the environment.

A comparison of one-legged and two-legged countermovement jumps.

Ten well-trained male volleyball players performed one-legged and two-legged vertical countermovement jumps. Ground reaction forces, cinematographic data, and electromyographic data were recorded. Jumping height in one-legged jumps was 58.5% of that reached in two-legged jumps. Mean net torques in hip and ankle joints were higher in one-legged jumps. Net power output in the ankle joint was extremely high in one-legged jumps. This high power output was explained by a higher level of activation in both heads of m. gastrocnemius in the one-legged jump. A higher level of activation was also found in m. vastus medialis. These differences between unilateral and bilateral performance of the complex movement jumping were shown to be in agreement with differences reported in literature based on isometric and isokinetic experiments.

Biomechanical analysis of drop and countermovement jumps

SummaryFor 13 subjects the performance of drop jumps from a height of 40 cm (DJ) and of countermovement jumps (CMJ) was analysed and compared. From force plate and cine data biomechanical variables including forces, moments, power output and amount of work done were calculated for hip, knee and ankle joints. In addition, electromyograms were recorded from five muscles in the lower extremity. The results obtained for DJ appeared to depend on jumping style. In a subgroup of subjects making a movement of large amplitude (i. e. bending their hips and knees considerably before pushing off) the push-off phase of DJ closely resembled that of CMJ. In a subgroup of subjects making a movement of small amplitude, however, the duration of the push-off phase was shorter, values for moments and mean power output at the knees and ankles were larger, and the mean EMG activity of m. gastrocnemius was higher in DJ than in CMJ. The findings are attributed to the influences of the rapid pre-stretch of knee extensors and plantar flexors after touch-down in DJ. In both subgroups, larger peak resultant reaction forces were found at the knee and ankle joints, and larger peak forces were calculated for the Achilles tendon in DJ than in CMJ.

The influence of air friction in speed skating

With the use of a wind tunnel the air friction force Fw on six speed skaters of different body builds was measured. The dependence of the drag coefficient CD on air velocity v and the influence of different skating postures on drag were investigated. At an air velocity of v = 12 m/sec, an angle between upper and lower leg of 110 degrees and a horizontal trunk position, the measured air friction constant kn(=Fw/V2) of all subjects was calculated from their height l and weight m according to the formula 0.0205 l3 square root m (standard error 2%). CD and as a consequence k appeared to be strongly dependent on air velocity. Expressions to correct k for other velocities and postures were derived and substituted into a power balance by which the influence of posture, ice condition, wind and altitude on performance was predicted.