G. Robinson

New OH Zeeman Measurements of Magnetic Field Strengths in Molecular Clouds

We present the results of a new survey of 23 molecular clouds for the Zeeman effect in OH undertaken with the Australia Telescope National Facility Parkes 64 m radio telescope and the National Radio Astronomy Observatory Green Bank 43 m radio telescope. The Zeeman effect was clearly detected in the cloud associated with the H II region RCW 38, with a field strength of 38 ± 3 μG, and possibly detected in a cloud associated with the H II region RCW 57, with a field strength of -203 ± 24 μG. The remaining 21 measurements give formal upper limits to the magnetic field strength, with typical 1 σ sensitivities less than 20 μG. For 22 of the molecular clouds we are also able to determine the column density of the gas in which we have made a sensitive search for the Zeeman effect. We combine these results with previous Zeeman studies of 29 molecular clouds, most of which were compiled by Crutcher, for a comparison of theoretical models with the data. This comparison implies that if the clouds can be modeled as initially spherical with uniform magnetic fields and densities that evolve to their final equilibrium state assuming flux freezing, then the typical cloud is magnetically supercritical, as was found by Crutcher. If the clouds can be modeled as highly flattened sheets threaded by uniform perpendicular fields, then the typical cloud is approximately magnetically critical, in agreement with Shu et al., but only if the true values of the field for the nondetections are close to the 3 σ upper limits. If instead these values are significantly lower (for example, similar to the 1 σ limits), then the typical cloud is generally magnetically supercritical. When all observations of the Zeeman effect are considered, the single-dish detection rate of the OH Zeeman effect is relatively low. This result may be due to low mean field strengths, but a more realistic explanation may be significant field structure within the beam. As an example, for clouds associated with H II regions, the molecular gas and magnetic field may be swept up into a thin shell, which results in a nonuniform field geometry and measurements of the beam-averaged field strength, which are significantly lower than the true values. This effect makes it more difficult to distinguish magnetically subcritical and supercritical clouds.

On the identification of high-mass star forming regions using iras : Contamination by low-mass protostars

We present the results of a survey of a small sample (14) of low-mass protostars (LIR < 103 L☉) for 6.7 GHz methanol maser emission performed using the ATNF Parkes radio telescope. No new masers were discovered. We find that the lower luminosity limit for maser emission is near 103 L☉ by comparison of the sources in our sample with previously detected methanol maser sources. We examine the IRAS properties of our sample and compare them with sources previously observed for methanol maser emission, almost all of which satisfy the Wood & Churchwell criterion for selecting candidate UC H II regions. We find that about half of our sample satisfy this criterion, and in addition, almost all of this subgroup have integrated fluxes between 25 and 60 μm that are similar to sources with detectable methanol maser emission. By identifying a number of low-mass protostars in this work and from the literature that satisfy the Wood & Churchwell criterion for candidate UC H II regions, we show conclusively for the first time that the fainter flux end of their sample is contaminated by lower mass nonionizing sources, confirming the suggestion by van der Walt and Ramesh & Sridharan.

The motion of an arbitrarily rotating spherical projectile and its application to ball games

In this paper the differential equations which govern the motion of a spherical projectile rotating about an arbitrary axis in the presence of an arbitrary ‘wind’ are developed. Three forces are assumed to act on the projectile: (i) gravity, (ii) a drag force proportional to the square of the projectile’s velocity and in the opposite direction to this velocity and (iii) a lift or ‘Magnus’ force also assumed to be proportional to the square of the projectile’s velocity and in a direction perpendicular to both this velocity and the angular velocity vector of the projectile. The problem has been coded in Matlab and some illustrative model trajectories are presented for ‘ball-games’, specifically golf and cricket, although the equations could equally well be applied to other ball-games such as tennis, soccer or baseball. Spin about an arbitrary axis allows for the treatment of situations where, for example, the spin has a component about the direction of travel. In the case of a cricket ball the subtle behaviour of so-called ‘drift’, particularly ‘late drift’, and also ‘dip’, which may be produced by a slow bowler’s off or leg-spin, are investigated. It is found that the trajectories obtained are broadly in accord with those observed in practice. We envisage that this paper may be useful in two ways: (i) for its inherent scientific value as, to the best of our knowledge, the fundamental equations derived here have not appeared in the literature and (ii) in cultivating student interest in the numerical solution of differential equations, since so many of them actively participate in ball-games, and they will be able to compare their own practical experience with the overall trends indicated by the numerical results. As the paper presents equations which can be further extended, it may be of interest to research workers. However, since only the most basic principles of fundamental mechanics are employed, it should be well within the grasp of first year university students in physics and engineering and, with the guidance of teachers, good final year secondary school students. The trajectory results included may be useful to sporting personnel with no formal training in physics.

The spectral and spatial distribution of radiation from Eta Carinae. II High-resolution infrared maps of the Homunculus

The spectral and spatial distribution of radiation from Eta Carinae II and high-resolution infrared maps of the Homunculus are presented. It is found that at the resolution of 1.1 arcsec the source is resolved into two intensity peaks at four wavelengths from 3.6 to 11.2 microns. The separation of the two peaks with wavelength is discussed, concluding that they are produced by an asymmetrical distribution of dust formed by extensive mass loss from the central source. The extension of the wings of the source at various wavelengths provide confirmatory evidence for an enrichment of a grain species such as corundum, relative to silicate material in the outer regions of the source.

On the Formation of Interstellar Water Ice: Constraints from a Search for Hydrogen Peroxide Ice in Molecular Clouds

Recent surface chemistry experiments have shown that the hydrogenation of molecular oxygen on interstellar dust grains is a plausible formation mechanism, via hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), for the production of water (H2O) ice mantles in the dense interstellar medium. Theoretical chemistry models also predict the formation of a significant abundance of H2O2 ice in grain mantles by this route. At their upper limits, the predicted and experimental abundances are sufficiently high that H2O2 should be detectable in molecular cloud ice spectra. To investigate this further, laboratory spectra have been obtained for H2O2/H2O ice films between 2.5 and 200 μm, from 10 to 180 K, containing 3%, 30%, and 97% H2O2 ice. Integrated absorbances for all the absorption features in low-temperature H2O2 ice have been derived from these spectra. For identifying H2O2 ice, the key results are the presence of unique features near 3.5, 7.0, and 11.3 μm. Comparing the laboratory spectra with the spectra of a group of 24 protostars and field stars, all of which have strong H2O ice absorption bands, no absorption features are found that can definitely be identified with H2O2 ice. In the absence of definite H2O2 features, the H2O2 abundance is constrained by its possible contribution to the weak absorption feature near 3.47 μm found on the long-wavelength wing of the 3 μ mH 2O ice band. This gives an average upper limit for H2O2, as a percentage of H2O, of 9% ± 4%. This is a strong constraint on parameters for surface chemistry experiments and dense cloud chemistry models.

The infrared emission of G333.6-0.2 - An extremely nonspherical H II region

The southern H II region G333.6-0.2, which has a total luminosity of 3.3 million solar luminosities (for an assumed distance of 4 kpc) was mapped at 2.2, 10, 30, 50, and 100 microns. At all wavelengths, the surface brightness of the infrared radiation is unusually high and the structure of the source is compact and symmetrical. The present observations, along with previous data, suggest that G333.6-0.2 is excited by a single luminous object or a very compact cluster, which has formed on the front surface of a dense molecular cloud as seen from the earth. It is shown that the spectral and spatial characteristics of the infrared radiation can be understood in terms of this blister model.

A model for multiple isothermal circumstellar dust shells

We have extended our previously described single and double-shell isothermal circumstellar dust shell models to the case of an arbitrary number of independent isothermal shells. We envisage that this model, the code for which is available on-line, may be useful in three ways: (i) as a tool for the quick representation of the spectrum of dust enshrouded objects, (ii) as an initial guide to the choice of parameters to be used in more sophisticated models and (iii) as a teaching aid for a simple application of radiative transfer theory. For illustrative purposes this model has been used to represent the spectral energy distribution of two evolved objects with optically thick circumstellar dust shells, the post asymptotic giant branch (post-AGB) star IRAS 22036+5306 and the proto-planetary nebula (PPN) M1-92. Both of these objects have very broad spectral energy distributions, their flat distributions having proven difficult to model in the past. The satisfactory fit of the models supports the considerable evidence that some evolved objects in particular, may have multiple discrete circumstellar dust shells, possibly ejected from the central star at different epochs and with different grain compositions. In addition, the isothermal nature of the models suggests the possibility that these shells may be quite limited in their temperature range and physical extent.

Preliminary Results of a Survey of Ultracompact H II Regions

Ultracompact H II regions are small, dense regions of ionised gas surrounding high-mass stars which are still embedded in their natal molecular clouds. A survey of such regions has been commenced in an attempt to improve our understanding of the processes of high-mass star formation. The initial stages of the survey have involved selection of likely candidates from the IRAS Point Source Catalogue, correlation with radio continuum emission at 4·85 GHz and subsequent observations of methanol maser emission at 6·668 GHz. Preliminary results of the methanol maser survey are given.

Ship Stability and Parametric Rolling

Summary Ships, and therefore ship stability, is of vital importance for the transportation of humans and livestock, as well as providing the only means of transporting heavy cargoes between the continents. We present a simple model for ship stability based on the well known Mathieu equation, a second-order differential equation with periodic coefficients, which describes the phenomenon of parametric rolling. Using MATLAB, this model can be used in a classroom setting to introduce students to an important class of differential equations that are not ordinarily taught in the undergraduate engineering curriculum.

The effect of spin in swing bowling in cricket: model trajectories for spin alone

In ‘swing’ bowling, as employed by fast and fast-medium bowlers in cricket, back-spin along the line of the seam is normally applied in order to keep the seam vertical and to provide stability against ‘wobble’ of the seam. Whilst spin is normally thought of as primarily being the slow bowlerʼs domain, the spin applied by the swing bowler has the side-effect of generating a lift or Magnus force. This force, depending on the orientation of the seam and hence that of the back-spin, can have a side-ways component as well as the expected vertical ‘lift’ component. The effect of the spin itself, in influencing the trajectory of the fast bowlerʼs delivery, is normally not considered, presumably being thought of as negligible. The purpose of this paper is to investigate, using calculated model trajectories, the amount of side-ways movement due to the spin and to see how this predicted movement compares with the total observed side-ways movement. The size of the vertical lift component is also estimated.It is found that, although the spin is an essential part of the successful swing bowlerʼs delivery, the amount of side-ways movement due to the spin itself amounts to a few centimetres or so, and is therefore small, but perhaps not negligible, compared to the total amount of side-ways movement observed. The spin does, however, provide a considerable amount of lift compared to the equivalent delivery bowled without spin, altering the point of pitching by up to 3 m, a very large amount indeed. Thus, for example, bowling a ball with the seam pointing directly down the pitch and not designed to swing side-ways at all, but with the amount of back-spin varied, could provide a very powerful additional weapon in the fast bowlerʼs arsenal. So-called ‘sling bowlers’, who use a very low arm action, can take advantage of spin since effectively they can apply side-spin to the ball, giving rise to a large side-ways movement, cm or more, which certainly is significant. For a given amount of spin the amount of side-ways movement increases as the bowlerʼs delivery arm becomes more horizontal. This technique could also be exploited by normal spin bowlers as well as swing bowlers.