Gary B. Stuck

Time and Learning: Implications for the Classroom Teacher

another important relationship that has implications for teacher behavior and for the training of teachers. A strong, positive, and consistent relationship has been found to exist between the -time students spend engaged in learning and their subsequent achievement performance (Bloom 1974; Hops and Cobb 1974; McKinney et al. 1975; Anderson 1976; Walker and Hops 1976; Anderson and Scott 1978; Good and Beckerman 1978; Hoge and Luce 1979; Rosenshine 1979a; Wyne and Stuck 1979; Stallings 1980; Stuck 1980). The purpose of this article is to examine the rapidly growing body of time-and-learning research from the perspective of the classroom teacher. Although this type of research suffers from some conceptual and methodological problems, several consistent findings have been reported that are relevant to the work of teachers and teacher educators. A

Time-on-Task and Reading Performance in Underachieving Children

Elementary school pupils identified as being a year or more behind in reading achievement and who were observed as spending low percentages of time-on-task-were selected for participation in a short-term, highly structured program designed to increase task oriented behavior. Two different groups of approximately ten children each participated in each of three separate eight-week intervention phases. For each phase, a comparison group of approximately ten children remained in the regular classroom. Following the intervention, participating pupils were found to spend significantly more time-on-task and to achieve at a significantly higher level in reading than their comparison counterparts. These advantages in reading achievement performance were maintained over a period of four months after their return to regular classrooms on a full-time basis.

The Factorial Structure of the North Carolina Teaching Performance Appraisal Instrument

The factorial structure of the performance ratings of 27 teaching practices contained on the North Carolina Teaching Performance Appraisal Instrument (TPAI) is reported in this paper. As currently used, ratings using the TPAI yield five scores: (a) Management of Instructional Time, (b) Management of Student Behavior, (c) Instructional Presentation, (d) Instructional Monitoring, and (e) Instructional Feedback. This five function scoring scheme is based on logical judgement and not empirical evidence. The results a study using factor analysis procedures suggest that a five factor solution that paralleled the current scoring scheme was not as parsimonious as a two factor solution. The clarity and meaningfulness of the interpretation of the two factor solution provides supportive evidence for the construct validity of the TPAI as well as suggestions for a more utilitarian procedure for using the instrument in large scale teaching performance assessment programs.

Effects of a Short-Term Intervention Resource-Room Program On Task Orientation and Achievement:

Elementary school pupils identified as being a year or more behind in reading and/or math achievement and who were observed as spending low percentages of time on-task were selected for participation in an intensive engineered resource-room program. Groups of approximately 10 children participated in each of 3 8-week intervention phases. For each phase, a comparison group of approximately 10 children remained in the regular classroom. Following the intervention, resource-room pupils spent significantly more time on-task and achieved at a significantly higher level in reading and math than did their comparison counterparts. These advantages were maintained over a period of 4 months after their return to regular classrooms on a full-time basis.

An assessment of the Pictorial Test of Intelligence for use with young cerebral-palsied children.

In order to determine the concurrent and predictive validity of the Pictorial Test of Intelligence for use with cerebral‐palsied children, this test was administered to 46 cerebral‐palsied children aged between four and seven years, together with the Columbia Mental Maturity Scale and the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. The results, compared with a classroom Achievement Rating Scale, showed the Pictorial Test of Intelligence to be superior to the other two tests as a predictor of classroom achievement of the children in this study.

A New Scale to Assess Locus of Control in Three Achievement Domains

Rotter ( 6 ) implied that measures of generalized locus of control may be inappropriate for many smdies. In certain situations more accurate behavioral predictions may be obtained by measuring more specific expectancies. This paper describes a scale designed to assess locus of control orientation in three achievement domains, intellectual, social, and physical, each of which is characterized by different beliefs and efforts. The Locus of Control Inventory for Three Achievement Domains has 48 items to be answered yes or no. Half the items in each domain measure control orientation for successful outcomes, the other half for unsuccessful outcomes. The scale was based on an earlier 60-item version. Items had point-bisedal correlations of at least .30 with total subscale and a discrimination index of at least .30. The scale was given to 373 students ages 12 to 18 yr, to compute KR-20 reliability coefficients, Intellectual subscale ( r = .53), Social subscale ( r = .54), Physical subscale ( r = .52), and Total scale (s = .75). Intercorrelations among subscales ranged from .44 to .57. Support for the scales validity derives from a correlation between the Intellectual subscale and Crandalls ( 4 ) Intellectual Achievement Responsibility scale ( r = .78, df = 58, p < .01; 1). Correlations for the other two subscales were smaller (.45 and .54). Correlations between the subscales and the Childrens Scale ( 5 ) ranged from .43 to .49. Bradley and Teeter (2 ) also reported values as high as .40 for 223 junior high and high school students between teachers ratings of considerate behavior and scores on the Social subscale. Data from 306 individuals from 13 to 90 yr. old indicated different age-related trends for the three subscales ( 3 ) . Bradley and Gaa (1) also found that s ~ d e n t s who had 6 weekly goal-setting conferences with their teacher scored more internal only on the Intellectual subscale than those who had no conference. Correlations among locus of control measures indicate approximately 25% shared variance plus considerable unique variance for each of the three domains assessed, thus corroborating Rotters position a b u t generalized and specific control expectancies.

Assessing Teacher Performance Using an Observation Instrument Based on Research Findings

Not all the skills considered essential for effective teaching can be part of a single instrument, say these authors, but the instru ment described here includes what their study found to be the generic practices that teachers need to perform successfully in the classroom. It is especially useful for helping beginning teachers, they write.

Generalized effects of a highly structured time-on-task intervention:

Peer ratings of the behaviors of 42 third and 73 sixth grade low-achieving children were examined to assess the extent co which effects of a highly structured time-on-task program generalized to the regular classroom. When compared with low-achieving peers who received supplementary remedial instruction in basic skills in a tutorial program, time-on-task students received significantly higher post-intervention peer ratings on task orientation. These results indicated that effects on task orientation generalized to the regular class, but effects on classroom misbehavior or social acceptance did not generalize. Implications for the availability of time-on-task in classrooms were discussed.

Book Reviews : Deobold B. Van Dalen. Understanding Educational Research: An Introduction (4th ed.). New York York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1979. Pp. iii + 547.

&dquo;... 4,500 trait names were reduced to 171 by eliminating synonyms, at least as judged by English scholars. These 171 1 trait elements were intercorrelated and 36 clusters of correlations were isolated surface traits. Ten other surface traits were added to these, a few from a study of the abnormal literature in psychiatry and some that appeared in experiments over the years.&dquo; This is the total explanation of the theoretical basis of the 16 PF, related personality questionnaires, and a career of research that has resulted. Although this is evidently what got the ball rolling, the reader is asked to accept a great deal on faith. How were the 4,500 trait names reduced to 171? On what basis were the 171 traits reduced to a