Gerard de Zeeuw

Interaction of actors theory

Gordon Pask developed not only a conversation theory, but also a (less well‐known) interaction of actors theory, partly in response to demands during the time he worked in Amsterdam. The paper aims to clarify how this theory intended to minimise the effects of use on scientific results, while maximising the help of such results to improve on actions. This would facilitate empirical study of what changes user values, as well as the preferred design of (computer supported) support systems. Results include the material and communicative support of collective and social activities. Three examples are presented.

Constructivism: A 'next' area of scientific development?

Radical Constructivism has been defined as an‘unconventional approach to the problem ofknowledge and knowing’. Its unconventionalityis summarised by its claim that it isimpossible to attribute unique meaning toexperience – as no mind-independent yardstick canbe assumed to exist against which to identifyuniqueness, and hence to produce knowledge andknowing. In other words, it is claimed thatthere is no ‘reality’ that is knowable to allindividual knowers. This claim appearsindefensible by itself, as it does not explainwhy the successes of traditional science appearas such. However, it is defensible in thecontext of numerous failures to achieve uniqueattributions, or of the history of science.Even so, what is missing are concrete methodsand research designs. This often leaves RadicalConstructivism to be critical only, toconcentrate on justifying the impossibility ofsuccess without contributing itself.Where this is the case it reduces scientiststo individuals considered unable to communicatewith others on public (and unique)attributions-who may do so only by borrowingmethods from previous approaches. It is arguedthat a more valuable contribution is possibleif Radical Constructivism is seen as a responseto the challenge defined by frequent failuresof traditional approaches. The latter may beextended such that the extensions converge toRadical Constructivism. Such extensions arebased on reported observations, rather than onexperiences in general, and are to beattributed meanings – uniquely as well asnon-uniquely – by way of a collective. The lattershould allow its ‘actors’ to restrict whatmaintains the collective to what is observableto others, as well as use the collective torestrict their own observations. The study ofcollectives thus allows for the study ofrestrictions or values, and hence for includingsubjective or constructivist experiences beyond(reportable) observations.Radical Constructivism has been defined as an‘unconventional approach to the problem ofknowledge and knowing’. Its unconventionalityis summarised by its claim that it isimpossible to attribute unique meaning toexperience – as no mind-independent yardstick canbe assumed to exist against which to identifyuniqueness, and hence to produce knowledge andknowing. In other words, it is claimed thatthere is no ‘reality’ that is knowable to allindividual knowers. This claim appearsindefensible by itself, as it does not explainwhy the successes of traditional science appearas such. However, it is defensible in thecontext of numerous failures to achieve uniqueattributions, or of the history of science.Even so, what is missing are concrete methodsand research designs. This often leaves RadicalConstructivism to be critical only, toconcentrate on justifying the impossibility ofsuccess without contributing itself.Where this is the case it reduces scientiststo individuals considered unable to communicatewith others on public (and unique)attributions-who may do so only by borrowingmethods from previous approaches. It is arguedthat a more valuable contribution is possibleif Radical Constructivism is seen as a responseto the challenge defined by frequent failuresof traditional approaches. The latter may beextended such that the extensions converge toRadical Constructivism. Such extensions arebased on reported observations, rather than onexperiences in general, and are to beattributed meanings – uniquely as well asnon-uniquely – by way of a collective. The lattershould allow its ‘actors’ to restrict whatmaintains the collective to what is observableto others, as well as use the collective torestrict their own observations. The study ofcollectives thus allows for the study ofrestrictions or values, and hence for includingsubjective or constructivist experiences beyond(reportable) observations.

Are Subjective Probabilities Probabilities

While it certainly has proved expedient to describe people’s behavior in terms of probabilities, it is not clear whether, to what extent, or under what conditions, it is admissable to identify actual behavior with some reasonably well-fitting probabilistic description of it. What the authors call the confusion problem arises where such admissibility is implicitly assumed. Some examples of this problem are discussed, viz. those accruing from the determination of subjective probability as degree of felt certainty. A more detailed analysis is presented of the problem of changes in feelings of uncertainty, defined as revisions of opinion.

Soft knowledge accumulation, or the rise of competence

Of late, many new methodologies have appeared which purport to help improve organizations and the activities of their clients. The language of observation—instrumental in producing high-quality observations on results and methods—provides the main tool for evaluating these methodologies. Having been designed for different purposes it may, however, curtail the power of such methodologies. The language of access provides a better tool. It requires coordination of actorsin situ and emphasizes the coordinating role of artificial languages such as the problem-solving language or the language of decision.

The Actor as a Perfect Citizen

Reaching heaven, paradise, Utopia, perfection, or as Fukuyama (1992) states, the end of history, is often seen as man’s birthright. Sometimes it was assumed that mankind’s future state of happiness had to be guaranteed by some external, hence eternal influence. Sometimes one was sure that improvement would come automatically, as part of man’s destiny. Confidence in such matters seems to have increased, meanwhile. Many people now appear willing to accept that our existence is an’ achievement’, though’ luck’ and opportunism may play an important part in it — such as the piece of rock that, 65 million years ago, wiped out 70% of all species and allowed mammals their ascent.

Fighting for science

What deliverables did Stafford Beer envision when he developed his “science of effective organisation”? This paper answers this question as: the organisations that use the distinctions of Beers viable system model. Such organisations are part of daily life, but develop to become knowledge by continuously striving to identify experiences that falsify their existence. They will be irreducible in the sense that any acceptable model of the organisation will be the organisation itself. The notion of knowledge involved is made explicit in the paper as a tribute to Stafford Beers pioneering work. It allowed Stafford Beer to introduce and develop insights that began to be developed by others only much later.

Knowledge acquisition in changing realities

Various devices have been identified to support research as a way of improving on observations; those in the social sciences appearing to be less effective than those in the physical sciences. To make the former more effective, it often is tried to “involve” the user ‐ as a participant observer, as a co‐researcher, as a commissioner. A clarification of the multiplicity of such attempts seems in order. Formulates a framework to summarize the most important aspects of research. Explores instances of this framework with regard to their ability to include users. One instance is applied in a “practical” situation, the improvement of a social service. This instance distinguishes sharply between two kinds of users, each using a different language to promote transfer and interaction: users inside a collective and users outside that collective.

Some problems in the observation of performance

An important characteristic of human consciousness is its ability to distinguish between two kinds of realities. The first is the reality of daily life. This is what one talks or communicates about and uses as a referent in activities. It includes writing cheques, taking a bus, being part of a family, a community, a society. The second reality refers to what is not recognisable as the first reality. It may be shared by many, as when it takes the form of a ‘grand narrative’, for example the bible-based narrative of medieval times, or the narrative of the Enlightenment (Lyotard, 1984). Or it may be personal and local, as in recent times where it also refers to the narrative of personal development.

Increased competence as a process of surviving in shared information spaces

Connections between people and groups are growing more frequent and more intense. Cultural events, changes in laws, activities of organizations, and new ideas elsewhere affect ones own decisions and activities more and more. This development has strong implications for the way people can increase their competence and how they can affect what happens to their own community or geographical area. In this paper consequences are considered for a special type of tool, the so-called “problem language,” that appears to be intimately entwined with many other tools in operations research, cybernetics, and systems research. The language appears most adequate in situations where boundaries can be found such that external events have minimal impact on what happens inside those boundaries. The change in connectivity makes finding such boundaries less and less probable. This suggests looking for another language, to structure the processes necessary when one intends to overcome difficulties that cannot be represented and solved as problems. A “language of access” is proposed, derived partly from studies in areas where it has never been possible to find boundaries as indicated. Within the framework of this language one can derive “methods of externalization” that imply speeding up flows of information in a “shared workspace” or “shared information space.” Their implementation is greatly facilitated—or even made possible at all—by recent developments in information technology.

Education as a Process of Increasing Access to Societal Resources: Design and Methodology

Over time teaching has changed in many ways, partly due to new technologies. For example, instead of a direct provider of knowledge, the teacher’s role has changed to one of a guide, of a facilitator to acquire access to knowledge. It is suggested that new changes are necessary. Methods for change are discussed. The approach via so called ‘core systems’ is to be preferred. Good candidates for core systems are the languages used in education. They should be helped to change into ‘elaborated code’ [3, 11], to gain access to societal resources-as opposed to the strict code that presently seems to relate competence on individual and collective levels. Loosening this relationship will imply a productive change in the educational system.