Gert Jan Hofstede

Why Simulation Games Work-In Search of the Active Substance: A Synthesis

In this article, the authors reflect on the question why simulation games are such an effective tool for learning. The article is based on the authors’ experience and that of many other practitioners in the field. The article posits that it is the confluence of systemic knowledge, practice, emotional involvement, and social embeddedness that creates the potential to achieve results that no other methods can match. A simulation game run constitutes a bout of individual and collective purposeful action by an individual or a group formed specifically for that purpose. People have evolved to be supremely good at just that. Simulation games can teach systemic knowledge, and they can enable participants to try out organizational changes. This potential is not always realized, however. Game runs are “alive” and variable, and this is a risky strength. They activate not only the explicit rules but also the hidden cultural rules of the participants. This can lead to memorable learning as well as to frustration, particularly when games are used across cultures. The article specifies reasons why games could fail and offers ways to avoid these pitfalls. It shows that experience and craftsmanship are needed in game design, facilitation, and debriefing.

Synthetic cultures: intercultural learning through simulation games

This article introduces the concept of synthetic cultures. These are role profiles for enacting dimensions of national culture. The full profiles are given for 10 synthetic cultures, based on Gert Hofstede’s dimensions of national culture. They can be used for training or simulation/gaming. Examples of their application are presented. Apart from examples of existing games, suggestions are made for creating custom simulations that use synthetic cultures. Experiences of players are mentioned, both in face-to-face and in electronically mediated settings. Special attention is paid to debriefing issues. The article concludes with practical advice to prospective game leaders.

Agent-based modeling of consumer decision making process based on power distance and personality

Simulating consumer decision making processes involves different disciplines such as: sociology, social psychology, marketing, and computer science. In this paper, we propose an agent-based conceptual and computational model of consumer decision-making based on culture, personality and human needs. It serves as a model for individual behavior in models that investigate system-level resulting behavior. Theoretical concepts operationalized in the model are the Power Distance dimension of Hofstedes model of national culture; Extroversion, Agreeableness and Openness of Costa and McCraes five-factor model of personality, and social status and social responsibility needs. These factors are used to formulate the utility function, process and update the agent state, need recognition and action estimation modules of the consumer decision process. The model was validated against data on culture, personality, wealth and car purchasing from eleven European countries. It produces believable results for the differences of consumer purchasing across eleven European countries.

Trust and Tracing game: learning about transactions and embeddedness in a trade network

This paper introduces a gaming simulation, the Trust and Tracing game, for learning about the relation between social structure and the co-ordination of transactions in a trade network. This paper describes experiences from 15 sessions with the game. Its model allows the use of network and market coordination mechanisms by participating groups. During debriefing participants typically indicated they learned that prior relationships were more important to the course of the session than economic theory predicts. Number of participants, language barriers, nationality, perceived group membership, and prior experience determined which transaction governance mechanism emerged in the game.

Towards a cross‐cultural typology of trust in B2B food trade

Purpose – This paper aims to develop a hierarchical typology of trust elements for business‐to‐business trade among European companies in the food sector.Design/methodology/approach – The paper integrates desk research literature study and a qualitative survey of food industry companies. An extensive literature review about inter‐organizational trust lays a foundation for designing a draft typology based on previous studies, with special attention paid to the influence of culture. Fine‐tuning and validation of the typology is achieved through an exploratory field study based on 18 qualitative in‐depth interviews with key informants in five EU countries, involving practitioners from the fresh fruit and vegetable, grain, meat and olive supply chains.Findings – A detailed typology of trust is developed. Although it is highly specific to the food industry, it is designed to be neutral to culture and sector, thus allowing the identification of differences in culture when dealing with trust building elements in...

Videoconferencing across cultures : A conceptual framework for floor control issues

This paper discusses critical issues in cross-cultural communication and collaboration using desktop videoconferencing tools. Our first objective is to propose a conceptual framework for predicting which issues will be important for communication in cross-cultural desktop videoconferencing. Using this framework, we suggest necessary functionality regarding floor control policies in videoconferences. We then suggest some actual software mechanisms that could implement these policies to videoconferencing software builders. Finally, we present some conduct guidelines for people who will be involved as participants in cross-cultural desktop videoconferences.

Modelling trade and trust across cultures

Misunderstandings arise in international trade due to difference in cultural background of trade partners. Trust and the role it plays in trade are influenced by culture. Considering that trade always involves working on the relationship with the trade partner, understanding the behaviour of the other is of the essence. This paper proposes to involve cultural dimensions in the modelling of trust in trade situations. A case study is presented to show a conceptualisation of trust with respect to the cultural dimension of performance orientation versus cooperation orientation.

Social Importance Dynamics: A Model for Culturally-Adaptive Agents

The unwritten rules of human cultures greatly affect social behaviour and as such should be considered in the development of socially intelligent agents. So far, there has been a large focus on modeling cultural aspects related to non-verbal behaviour such as gaze or body posture. However, culture also dictates how we perceive and treat others from a relational perspective. Namely, what do we expect from others in different social situations and how much are we willing to do for others as well. In this article we present a culturally configurable model of such social dynamics. The aim is to facilitate the creation of agents with distinct cultural behaviour, which emerges from different parametrisations of the proposed model. The practical application of the model was tested in the development of an agent-based application for intercultural training, in which the model is responsible for driving the socio-cultural behaviour of the virtual agents.

Individualism and Collectivism in Trade Agents

Agent-Based Modeling can contribute to the understanding of international trade processes. Models for the effects of culture and cultural differences on agent behavior are required for realistic agent-based simulation of international trade. This paper makes a step toward modeling of culture in agents. The focus is one of the five dimensions of culture according to Hofstede: individualism versus collectivism. The paper presents an analysis based on social science literature about national cultures. For cultural differentiation of agent behavior, rules are formulated for individualist versus collectivist agent behavior with respect to negotiations, cooperation or defection in the delivery phase of transactions, trade partner selection, and trust. Example computations demonstrate the feasibility in multi-agent simulations.

Long-Term Orientation in Trade

Trust does not work in the same way across cultures. This paper presents an agent model of behavior in trade across Hofstedes cultural dimension of long-term vs. short-term orientation. The situation is based on a gaming simulation, the Trust and Tracing game. The paper investigates the micro-dynamics of trust in a trade relationship, focusing on one dimension of culture only. This is a deliberate simplification that is made in order to highlight the role of this particular dimension of culture. The dimension is relevant for trade between East Asia and the Western world. The paper discusses the cultural dimension of long-tern vs. short-term orientation and specifies decision rules for trading agents, differentiated across the dimension. The paper contributes to bridging the gap between macro level analysis of intercultural trade and micro level knowledge about culturally determined behaviour. To this end the agent model is implemented in a multi-agent simulation. Potential applications of the model are to be found primarily in research into the formation and performance of supply chains and networks, and secondarily in training, education, and advice systems. The implementation of the model has been verified to qualitatively represent the effects expected on the basis of Hofstedes theory.