Giampiero Giacomello

The Information Revolution, Security, and International Relations: (IR)relevant Theory?

The purpose of this article is twofold: to analyze the impact of the information revolution on security and to clarify what existing international relations theory can say about this challenge. These pertinent questions are initially addressed by a critical review of past research. This review shows that the concern for security issues is largely confined to a specialist literature on information warfare and cyber-security, while neither the general literature on information society nor security studies pay any serious attention to information-technology-related security issues. The specialist literature is mostly policy oriented, and only very rarely informed by theory, whether from the international relations discipline or any other field. In this article, three general international relations “schools” (realism, liberalism, and constructivism) are scrutinized with regard to what they can say about security in the digital age. It is argued that the liberal focus on pluralism, interdependence, and globalization, the constructivist emphasis on language, symbols, and images (including “virtuality”), and some elements of realist strategic studies (on information warfare) contribute to an understanding of digital-age security. Finally, it is suggested that pragmatism might help to bridge the gap between theory and practice, and overcome the dualistic, contending nature of international relations theories.

My Scale or your Meter? Evaluating Methods of Measuring the Internet

Measuring the Internet - the size of its infrastructure, how many people use it, and their prevalent uses - is of obvious interest. However, the wealth of available quantitative information regarding the Internet so far has fallen short of satisfying the many needs that it would fulfill. We set the problem of measuring the Internet into a framework that allows us to derive insights on the peculiar nature of the Internet as a piece of infrastructure. After reviewing the current measures available, while drawing a distinction between the object of measurement, and the types of institutions involved in it, we provide some indications on what data should be trusted more, and how better measures of the Internet could be obtained.

Content analysis in the digital age : Tools, functions, and implications for security

Content analysis is an established and effective method for research in the social science and, despite what many think, it has been around for quite some time. It has also tremendously benefited from ICT and the growth of computing power, as computers have proved to excel in the dull routine of scanning texts for keywords. But content analysis has become ubiquitous with the advent of the Internet, particularly emails and Web sites. Keyword search, a pivotal element of content analysis, is the most widespread feature of many Internet applications, from search engines to password-cracking programs. Consequently, it has become a central concern for cybersecurity. This chapter investigates some of the most important applications of content analysis on the Net and discusses its increasing essential position in many areas of cybersecurity.

Helping Hands: Civil-Military Cooperation and Italy's Military Operation Abroad

In the Post-Bipolar Era the growing complexity of the military operations requires a new approach for the resolution of international crises. Since the end of the Cold War, peace support operations (PSO) have become the mainstay and principal occupation of most Western armies. At the same time, Italy has been one of the most important actors in such an area. The article focuses on the cooperation between military and civil components (a process called CIMIC) as a key variable in the Italian PSOs. We will analyse in detail the main lessons learned from past military interventions as well as the general context in which new tendencies are taking place. The maintaining of a minimum security frame becomes essential to fulfil activities ‘collateral’ to the mission: reconstructing services and infrastructure, food distribution, water and medication, law and order, de-mining, training of local forces, and supporting local institutions. These are the main tasks to obtain thrust and support from the population.

In Harm’s Way: Why and When a Modern Democracy Risks the Lives of Its Uniformed Citizens

Abstract Despite the risk of disastrous outcomes, time and again, advanced democracies have sent their soldiers abroad to dangerous places. They do so not out of necessity (i.e. self-defence), but choice (e.g. humanitarian intervention). What motivates political leaders to accept the risks of such actions? This heuristic study examines three diverse cases in which a medium-sized, advanced democracy, Italy, decided to deploy its troops abroad. It did so because it was both a way to foster its standing in world affairs and a deeply felt, ‘moral’ commitment to international law. This conclusion can probably be applied to several other democracies such as Germany, Canada or Sweden.

Managing Human Factors

For critical infrastructures (CI), technology solutions have been the preferred choice so far. Yet, the human component of CI could be the primary cause of events causing a less than resilient performance of a CI system. This chapter introduces a systemic approach that contextualizes cascading dynamics in the vulnerability of both technological and human elements. It is followed by a description of the evolution of critical infrastructure and management, envisioned as root causes of cascades effects, and explains the role of the human factor in that process. This chapter highlights why investments in technological resilience of cyber assets cannot do without the integration of its human component. Indeed, consensus is growing among security experts that the weakest link in the security chain is the human being, whether as users, customers, administrators, or managers. The technological progress needs to be followed step by step by improvements in users/operators’ skills and routines, adjusting their ability to improvise and resilience.

The Invisible Hand? Critical Information Infrastructures, Commercialisation and National Security

Abstract Corporatisation of critical information infrastructure (CII) is rooted in the ‘privatisation wave’ of the 1980s-90s, when the ground was laid for outsourcing public utilities. Despite well-known risks relating to reliability, resilience, and accountability, commitment to efficiency imperatives have driven governments to outsource key public services and infrastructures. A recent illustrative case with enormous implications is the 2017 Swedish ICT scandal, where outsourcing of CII caused major security breaches. With the transfer of the Swedish Transport Agency’s ICT system to IBM and subcontractors, classified data and protected identities were made accessible to non-vetted foreign private employees – sensitive data could thus now be in anyone’s hands. This case clearly demonstrates accountability gaps that can arise in public-private governance of CII.

Defensive Weapons and Star Wars: A Supergame with Optimal Punishments

We model the perspective faced by nuclear powers involved in a supergame where nuclear deterrence is used to stabilise peace. This setting allows us to investigate the bearings of defensive weapons on the effectiveness of deterrence and peace stability, relying on one-shot optimal punishments. We find that the sustainability of peace is unaffected by defensive shields if the latter are symmetric across countries, while asymmetric endowments of such weapons have clear-cut destabilising consequences.

International Relations, Cybersecurity, and Content Analysis: A Constructivist Approach

The development and global diffusion of access to the Internet has—as is the case with most new and game-changing technologies—been accompanied with fears and threat perceptions. This chapter argues, on the one hand, that Constructivist IR theory is particularly suited for addressing and interpreting the threat discourses and identity issues which come in focus in cybersecurity. The ease with which cyber-culprits can hide their identity and location, operating through networks of hijacked computers across the world, makes fear-mongering threat and identity discourses a key issue in cybersecurity. On the other hand, this chapter presents content analysis—a set of quantitative methods focusing on key word searches—as a pertinent or even ubiquitous method for both the study and practice of cybersecurity. Through simple and globally accessible interfaces, the entire Web can be scrutinized using content analysis. Equipped with Constructivist theory and content analysis methods, the IR scholar stands prepared to uncover and better understand the massive discursive world of the Internet.

From the Fall of the Berlin Wall: Italy’s Military Missions 1990–2001

This chapter focuses on the MOA undertaken by the Italian armed forces in the 1990s. From the end of the Cold War to the beginning of the twenty-first century, Italian troops have been constantly engaged in MOA, deploying soldiers in a growing number of regional crises. Nowadays Italy is one of the most significant contributors to the UN peacekeeping operations.1 As has been emphasized in previous chapters, Italy has promoted its international credibility through PSOs, assuming new responsibilities in the global scenario. The inactive and purely defensive approach of the bipolar era has been definitively altered. The end of the constraints caused by the Cold War and the overall reform of the military played a crucial role in the transformation process. For instance, conscription has been abolished, the overall size of the army has been reduced and many other organizational innovations have been introduced in recent years.2