Gianfranco Gentile

The Westerbork Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS (HALOGAS) survey - I. Survey description and pilot observations

We introduce a new, very deep neutral hydrogen (H i) survey being performed with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT). The Westerbork Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS (HALOGAS) Survey is producing an archive of some of the most sensitive H i observations available, on the angular scales which are most useful for studying faint, diffuse gas in and around nearby galaxies. The survey data are being used to perform careful modeling of the galaxies, characterizing their gas content, morphology, and kinematics, with the primary goal of revealing the global characteristics of cold gas accretion onto spiral galaxies in the local Universe. In this paper, we describe the survey sample selection, the data acquisition, reduction, and analysis, and present the data products obtained during our pilot program, which consists of UGC 2082, NGC 672, NGC 925, and NGC 4565. The observations reveal a first glimpse of the picture that the full HALOGAS project aims to illuminate: the properties of accreting H i in different types of spirals, and across a range of galactic environments. None of the pilot survey galaxies hosts an H i halo of the scale of NGC 891, but all show varying indications of halo gas features. We compare the properties of detected features in the pilot survey galaxies with their global characteristics, and discuss similarities and differences with NGC 891 and NGC 2403.

HALOGAS: Extraplanar gas in NGC 3198

We present the analysis of new, deep Hi observations of the spiral galaxy NGC 3198 as part of the Westerbork Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS (HALOGAS) survey, with the main aim of investigating the presence, amount, morphology, and kinematics of extraplanar gas. We present models of the Hi observations of NGC 3198. The model that matches best the observed data cube features a thick disk with a scale height of similar to 3 kpc and an Hi mass of about 15% of the total Hi mass; this thick disk also has a decrease in rotation velocity as a function of height (lag) of 7-15 km s(-1) kpc(-1) (though with large uncertainties). This extraplanar gas is detected for the first time in NGC 3198. Radially, this gas appears to extend slightly beyond the actively star-forming body of the galaxy (as traced by the H alpha emission), but it is not more radially extended than the outer, fainter parts of the stellar disk. Compared to previous studies, thanks to the improved sensitivity we trace the rotation curve out to larger radii. We model the rotation curve in the framework of modified Newtonian dynamics (MOND) and confirm that, with the allowed distance range we assumed, fit quality is modest in this galaxy, but the new outer parts are explained in a satisfactory way.

Massive stars formed in atomic hydrogen reservoirs: H I observations of gamma-ray burst host galaxies

Long gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), among the most energetic events in the Universe, are explosions of massive and short-lived stars, so they pinpoint locations of recent star formation. However, several GRB host galaxies have recently been found to be deficient in molecular gas (H2), believed to be the fuel of star formation. Moreover, optical spectroscopy of GRB afterglows implies that the molecular phase constitutes only a small fraction of the gas along the GRB line of sight. Here we report the first ever 21 cm line observations of GRB host galaxies, using the AustraliaTelescope Compact Array, implying high levels of atomic hydrogen (Hu2009i), which suggests that the connection between atomic gas and star formation is stronger than previously thought. In this case, it is possible that star formation is directly fuelled by atomic gas (or that the Hu2009i-to-H2 conversion is very efficient, which rapidly exhaust molecular gas), as has been theoretically shown to be possible. This can happen in low-metallicity gas near the onset of star formation because cooling of gas (necessary for star formation) is faster than the Hu2009i-to-H2 conversion. Indeed, large atomic gas reservoirs, together with low molecular gas masses, stellar, and dust masses are consistent with GRB hosts being preferentially galaxies which have very recently started a star formation episode after accreting metal-poor gas from the intergalactic medium. This provides a natural route for forming GRBs in low-metallicity environments. The gas inflow scenario is also consistent with the existence of the companion Hu2009I object with no optical counterpart ~19 kpc from the GRBu2009060505 host, and with the fact that the Hu2009I centroids of the GRBu2009980425 and 060505 hosts do not coincide with optical centres of these galaxies, but are located close to the GRB positions.

HALOGAS observations of NGC 5023 and UGC 2082: modelling of non-cylindrically symmetric gas distributions in edge-on galaxies

In recent years, it has become clear that the vertical structure of disc galaxies is a key ingredient for understanding galaxy evolution. In particular, the presence and structure of extra-planar gas has been a focus of research. The Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS (HALOGAS) survey aims to provide a census on the rate of cold neutral gas accretion in nearby galaxies as well as a statistically significant set of galaxies that can be investigated for their extra-planar gas properties. In order to better understand the vertical structure of the neutral hydrogen in the two edge-on HALOGAS galaxies NGC 5023 and UGC 2082, we construct detailed tilted ring models. The addition of distortions resembling arcs or spiral arms significantly improves the fit of the models to these galaxies. In the case of UGC 2082, no vertical gradient in rotational velocity is required in either symmetric models nor non-symmetric models to match the observations. The best-fitting model features two arcs of large vertical extent that may be due to accretion. In the case of NGC 5023, a vertical gradient is required in symmetric models (dV/dz = -14.9 +/- 3.8 km s(-1) kpc(-1)) and its magnitude is significantly lowered when non-symmetric models are considered (dV/dz = -9.4 +/- 3.8 km s(-1) kpc(-1)). Additionally, it is shown that the underlying disc of NGC 5023 can be made symmetric, in all parameters except the warp, in non-symmetric models. In comparison to the classical modelling, these models fit the data significantly better with a limited addition of free parameters.

Combined Solar system and rotation curve constraints on MOND

The Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) paradigm generically predicts that the external gravitational field in which a system is embedded can produce effects on its internal dynamics. In this communication, we first show that this external field effect (EFE) can significantly improve some galactic rotation curves fits by decreasing the predicted velocities of the external part of the rotation curves. In modified gravity versions of MOND, this EFE also appears in the Solar system and leads to a very good way to constrain the transition function of the theory. A combined analysis of the galactic rotation curves and Solar system constraints (provided by the Cassini spacecraft) rules out several classes of popular MOND transition functions, but leaves others viable. Moreover, we show that Laser Interferometer Space Antenna Pathfinder will not be able to improve the current constraints on these still viable transition functions.

HALOGAS observations of NGC 4414: fountains, interaction, and ram pressure

We present deep H i imaging of the nearby spiral galaxy NGC 4414, taken as part of the Westerbork HALOGAS (Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS) survey. The observations show that NGC 4414 can be characterized by a regularly rotating inner H i disk, and a more disturbed outer disk. Modeling of the kinematics shows that the outer disk is best described by a U-shaped warp. Deep optical imaging also reveals the presence of a low surface brightness stellar shell, indicating a minor interaction with a dwarf galaxy at some stage in the past. Modeling of the inner disk suggests that about 4 percent of the inner H i is in the form of extra-planar gas. Because of the disturbed nature of the outer disk, this number is difficult to constrain for the galaxy as a whole. These new, deep observations of NGC 4414 presented here show that even apparently undisturbed galaxies are interacting with their environment.

GRB 980425 host: [C II], [O I], and CO lines reveal recent enhancement of star formation due to atomic gas inflow

Context. Accretion of gas from the intergalactic medium is required to fuel star formation in galaxies. We have recently suggested that this process can be studied using host galaxies of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Aims: Our aim is to test this possibility by studying in detail the properties of gas in the closest galaxy hosting a GRB (980425). Methods: We obtained the first ever far-infrared (FIR) line observations of a GRB host, namely Herschel/PACS resolved [C II] 158 μm and [O I] 63 μm spectroscopy, and an APEX/SHeFI CO(2-1) line detection and ALMA CO(1-0) observations of the GRB 980425 host. Results: The GRB 980425 host has elevated [C II]/FIR and [O I]/FIR ratios and higher values of star formation rates (SFR) derived from line ([C II], [O I], Hα) than from continuum (UV, IR, radio) indicators. [C II] emission exhibits a normal morphology, peaking at the galaxy centre, whereas [O I] is concentrated close to the GRB position and the nearby Wolf-Rayet region. The high [O I] flux indicates that there is high radiation field and high gas density at these positions, as derived from modelling of photo-dissociation regions. The [C II]/CO luminosity ratio of the GRB 980425 host is close to the highest values found for local star-forming galaxies. Indeed, its CO-derived molecular gas mass is low given its SFR and metallicity, but the [C II]-derived molecular gas mass is close to the expected value. Conclusions: The [O I] and H I concentrations and the high radiation field and density close to the GRB position are consistent with the hypothesis of a very recent (at most a few tens of Myr ago) inflow of atomic gas triggering star formation. In this scenario dust has not had time to build up (explaining high line-to-continuum ratios). Such a recent enhancement of star formation activity would indeed manifest itself in high SFRline/SFRcontinuum ratios because the line indicators are sensitive only to recent (≲10 Myr) activity, whereas the continuum indicators measure the SFR averaged over much longer periods ( 100 Myr). Within a sample of 32 other GRB hosts, 20 exhibit SFRline/SFRcontinuum> 1 with a mean ratio of 1.74 ± 0.32. This is consistent with a very recent enhancement of star formation that is common among GRB hosts, so galaxies that have recently experienced inflow of gas may preferentially host stars exploding as GRBs. Therefore GRBs may be used to select a unique sample of galaxies that is suitable for the investigation of recent gas accretion. Herschel is an ESA space observatory with science instruments provided by European-led Principal Investigator consortia and with important participation from NASA.

N-body simulations of the Carina dSph in MOND

The classical dwarf spheroidals (dSphs) provide a critical test for Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND) because they are observable satellite galactic systems with low internal accelerations and low, but periodically varying, external acceleration. This varying external gravitational field is not commonly found acting on systems with low internal acceleration. Using Jeans modelling, Carina in particular has been demonstrated to require a V-band mass-to-light ratio greater than 5, which is the nominal upper limit for an ancient stellar population. We run MOND N-body simulations of a Carina-like dSph orbiting the Milky Way to test if dSphs in MOND are stable to tidal forces over the Hubble time and if those same tidal forces artificially inflate their velocity dispersions and therefore their apparent mass-to-light ratio. We run many simulations with various initial total masses for Carina and Galactocentric orbits (consistent with proper motions), and compare the simulation line-of-sight velocity dispersions (losVDs) with the observed losVDs of Walker et al. We find that the dSphs are stable, but that the tidal forces are not conducive to artificially inflating the losVDs. Furthermore, the range of mass-to-light ratios that best reproduces the observed losVDs of Carina is 5.3 to 5.7 and circular orbits are preferred to plunging orbits. Therefore, some tension still exists between the required mass-to-light ratio for the Carina dSph in MOND and those expected from stellar population synthesis models. It remains to be seen whether a careful treatment of the binary population or triaxiality might reduce this tension.

HERschel Observations of Edge-on Spirals (HEROES). III. Dust energy balance study of IC 2531

We investigate the dust energy balance for the edge-on galaxy IC 2531, one of the seven galaxies in the HEROES sample. We perform a state-of-the-art radiative transfer modelling based, for the first time, on a set of optical and near-infrared galaxy images. We show that by taking into account near-infrared imaging in the modelling significantly improves the constraints on the retrieved parameters of the dust content. We confirm the result from previous studies that including a young stellar population in the modelling is important to explain the observed stellar energy distribution. However, the discrepancy between the observed and modelled thermal emission at far-infrared wavelengths, the so-called dust energy balance problem, is still present: the model underestimates the observed fluxes by a factor of about two. We compare two different dust models, and find that dust parameters, and thus the spectral energy distribution in the infrared domain, are sensitive to the adopted dust model. In general, the THEMIS model reproduces the observed emission in the infrared wavelength domain better than the popular BARE-GR-S model. Our study of IC 2531 is a pilot case for detailed and uniform radiative transfer modelling of the entire HEROES sample, which will shed more light on the strength and origins of the dust energy balance problem.

Dynamical measurement of the stellar surface density of face-on galaxies

The DiskMass survey recently provided measurements of the vertical velocity dispersions of disk stars in a sample of nearly face-on galaxies. By setting the disk scale-heights to be equal to those of edge-on galaxies with similar scale-lengths, it was found that these disks must be sub-maximal, with surprisingly low K-band mass-to-light ratios of the order of