Rene A. M. Walterbos

A WIDE-FIELD HIGH-RESOLUTION H I MOSAIC OF MESSIER 31. I. OPAQUE ATOMIC GAS AND STAR FORMATION RATE DENSITY

We have undertaken a deep, wide-field H I imaging survey of M31, reaching a maximum resolution of about 50 pc and 2 km s–1 across a 95 × 48 kpc region. The H I mass and brightness sensitivity at 100 pc resolution for a 25 km s–1 wide spectral feature is 1500 M ☉ and 0.28 K. Our study reveals ubiquitous H I self-opacity features, discernible in the first instance as filamentary local minima in images of the peak H I brightness temperature. Local minima are organized into complexes of more than kpc length and are particularly associated with the leading edge of spiral arm features. Just as in the Galaxy, there is only patchy correspondence of self-opaque features with CO(1-0) emission. We have produced images of the best-fit physical parameters: spin temperature, opacity-corrected column density, and nonthermal velocity dispersion, for the brightest spectral feature along each line of sight in the M31 disk. Spectroscopically opaque atomic gas is organized into filamentary complexes and isolated clouds down to 100 pc. Localized opacity corrections to the column density exceed an order of magnitude in many cases and add globally to a 30% increase in the atomic gas mass over that inferred from the integrated brightness under the usual assumption of negligible self-opacity. Opaque atomic gas first increases from 20 to 60 K in spin temperature with radius to 12 kpc but then declines again to 20 K beyond 25 kpc. We have extended the resolved star formation law down to physical scales more than an order of magnitude smaller in area and mass than has been possible previously. The relation between total gas mass and star formation rate density is significantly tighter than that with molecular mass and is fully consistent in both slope and normalization with the power-law index of 1.56 found in the molecule-dominated disk of M51 at 500 pc resolution. Below a gas mass density of about 5 M ☉ pc–2, there is a downturn in star formation rate density which may represent a real local threshold for massive star formation at a cloud mass of about 5 × 104 M ☉.

Andromeda IX: A New Dwarf Spheroidal Satellite of M31

We report the discovery of a new dwarf spheroidal satellite of M31, Andromeda IX, based on resolved stellar photometry from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS). Using both SDSS and public archival data, we have estimated its distance and other physical properties, and compared these to the properties of a previously known dwarf spheroidal companion, Andromeda V, also observed by SDSS. Andromeda IX is the lowest surface brightness galaxy found to date (μV, 0 ~ 26.8 mag arcsec-2), and at the distance we estimate from the position of the tip of Andromeda IXs red giant branch, (m - M)0 ~ 24.5 (805 kpc), Andromeda IX would also be the faintest galaxy known (MV ~ -8.3).

Diffuse Ionized Gas in Edge-on Spiral Galaxies: Extraplanar and Outer Disk Hα Emission

We present Hα images of five edge-on galaxies: NGC 891, NGC 4631, NGC 4244, NGC 3003, and UGC 9242. We also analyze [S II] λλ6717, 6731 and [O III] λ5007 images of NGC 4631. For several of these galaxies, these images are the most sensitive to date. We analyze the ionized gas content, with particular attention to the diffuse ionized gas (DIG). The DIG layer in NGC 891 is traced out to at least 5 kpc from the midplane, confirming an earlier spectroscopic detection. The DIG in four of these galaxies contributes 40%-50% of the total Hα luminosity, similar to the contribution in face-on galaxies, but in NGC 891 the DIG contributes 80%-90%. This is likely due to the higher dust content in the disk of NGC 891, which obscures the H II regions but may also reflect the extraordinary prominence of the DIG layer in that galaxy. Our very deep image of UGC 9242 shows very low surface brightness emission, as low as 0.3 pc cm-6, reaching 4-5 kpc above the midplane. This galaxy also exhibits filaments near the bright Hα nucleus, an indication of a starburst superwind. In NGC 4631 we see a very large shell of emission extending 3.5 kpc into the halo. The [S II]/Hα and [O III]/Hα ratios in NGC 4631 are consistent with the ratios seen in other galaxies, and with photoionization models. There is a region on the southeast side of disk where the [O III]/(Hα + [N II]) ratio reaches over 1.0 in the DIG, which coincides with an H I supershell. We use our very deep images of NGC 3003 and UGC 9242 to search for ionized gas in the outer disks as a test of the strength of the metagalactic ionizing radiation field. We find no outer disk emission down to our 1 σ limit of 0.13 pc cm-6 on scales of 1.5 kpc in NGC 3003. Based on this limit we rule out a metagalactic ionizing radiation field stronger than 11 × 10-23 ergs cm-2 s-1 Hz-1 sr-1. There is an indication of extended disk emission in UGC 9242, which would imply a stronger radiation field, but various concerns, most importantly flat-fielding uncertainties due to foreground stars in the image, lead us to question whether this feature is real.

Diffuse Ionized Gas in Three Sculptor Group Galaxies

We present a study of the diffuse ionized gas (DIG) in three Sculptor group galaxies: NGC 55, NGC 253, and NGC 300. The study is based on narrow band imagery in H-alpha+[NII](6548+6583A) and [SII] (6717+6731A). We find that DIG contributes 33 to 58% of the total H-alpha luminosity in these galaxies, or 30 to 54% after correcting for scattered light. We find that NGC 300 has a higher fractional DIG luminosity than the other galaxies in our sample, but it is not clear whether this is a significant difference or an effect of the high inclination of the other galaxies. The diffuse emission, averaged over the optical extent of the disk, has a face-on emission measure of 5 to 10 pc cm^{-6}. The DIG is concentrated near HII regions, although significant emission is seen at large distances from HII regions, up to 0.5 to 1 kpc. The [SII]/(H-alpha+[NII]) ratio is enhanced in the DIG, typically around 0.3 to 0.5, compared to 0.2 for the HII regions in these galaxies. These properties are similar to those measured for the DIG in the Milky Way and in other nearby spirals. The line ratios, large-scale distribution, and energy requirement suggest that photoionization is the dominant ionization mechanism.

The Westerbork Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS (HALOGAS) survey - I. Survey description and pilot observations

We introduce a new, very deep neutral hydrogen (H i) survey being performed with the Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT). The Westerbork Hydrogen Accretion in LOcal GAlaxieS (HALOGAS) Survey is producing an archive of some of the most sensitive H i observations available, on the angular scales which are most useful for studying faint, diffuse gas in and around nearby galaxies. The survey data are being used to perform careful modeling of the galaxies, characterizing their gas content, morphology, and kinematics, with the primary goal of revealing the global characteristics of cold gas accretion onto spiral galaxies in the local Universe. In this paper, we describe the survey sample selection, the data acquisition, reduction, and analysis, and present the data products obtained during our pilot program, which consists of UGC 2082, NGC 672, NGC 925, and NGC 4565. The observations reveal a first glimpse of the picture that the full HALOGAS project aims to illuminate: the properties of accreting H i in different types of spirals, and across a range of galactic environments. None of the pilot survey galaxies hosts an H i halo of the scale of NGC 891, but all show varying indications of halo gas features. We compare the properties of detected features in the pilot survey galaxies with their global characteristics, and discuss similarities and differences with NGC 891 and NGC 2403.

The Contribution of Field OB Stars to the Ionization of the Diffuse Ionized Gas in M33

We present a study of the ionizing stars associated with the diffuse ionized gas (DIG) and H II regions in the nearby spiral galaxy M33. We compare our Schmidt Hα image to the far-ultraviolet (FUV, 1520 A) image from the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT). The Hα/FUV ratio is higher in H II regions than in the DIG, suggesting an older population of ionizing stars in the DIG. Assuming ionization equilibrium, we convert the Hα flux to the number of Lyman continuum photons NLyc. When compared to models of evolving stellar populations, the NLyc/FUV ratio in H II regions is consistent with a young burst, while the DIG ratio resembles an older burst population, or a steady state population built up by constant star formation, which is probably a more accurate description of the stellar population in the field. The UIT data is complemented with archival FUV and optical images of a small portion of the disk of M33 obtained with WFPC2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). These images overlap low- and mid-luminosity H II regions as well as DIG, so we can investigate the stellar population in these environments. Using the HST FUV and optical photometry, we assign spectral types to the stars observed in DIG and H II regions. The photometry indicates that ionizing stars are present in the DIG. We compare the predicted ionizing flux with the amount required to produce the observed Hα emission, and we find that field OB stars in the HST images can account for 40% ± 12% of the ionization of the DIG, while the stars in H II regions can provide 107% ± 26% of the Hα luminosity of the H II regions. Due to the limited coverage of the HST data, we cannot determine if stars outside the HST fields ionize some of the DIG located in the HST fields, nor can we determine if photons from stars inside the HST fields leak out of the area covered by the HST fields. We do not find any correlation between leakage of ionizing photons and Hα luminosity for the H II regions in our HST fields. However, the HST fields do not include very luminous H II regions, and it would be worthwhile to see if there is any trend at higher luminosities. If stellar photons alone are responsible for ionizing the DIG, the current results are consistent with no or few ionizing photons escaping from the galaxy.We present a study of the ionizing stars associated with the diffuse ionized gas (DIG) and H II regions in the nearby spiral galaxy M33. We compare our Schmidt Hα image to the far-ultraviolet (FUV, 1520 A) image from the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT). The Hα/FUV ratio is higher in H II regions than in the DIG, suggesting an older population of ionizing stars in the DIG. Assuming ionization equilibrium, we convert the Hα flux to the number of Lyman continuum photons NLyc. When compared to models of evolving stellar populations, the NLyc/FUV ratio in H II regions is consistent with a young burst, while the DIG ratio resembles an older burst population, or a steady state population built up by constant star formation, which is probably a more accurate description of the stellar population in the field. The UIT data is complemented with archival FUV and optical images of a small portion of the disk of M33 obtained with WFPC2 on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). These images overlap low- and mid-luminosity H II regions as well as DIG, so we can investigate the stellar population in these environments. Using the HST FUV and optical photometry, we assign spectral types to the stars observed in DIG and H II regions. The photometry indicates that ionizing stars are present in the DIG. We compare the predicted ionizing flux with the amount required to produce the observed Hα emission, and we find that field OB stars in the HST images can account for 40% ± 12% of the ionization of the DIG, while the stars in H II regions can provide 107% ± 26% of the Hα luminosity of the H II regions. Due to the limited coverage of the HST data, we cannot determine if stars outside the HST fields ionize some of the DIG located in the HST fields, nor can we determine if photons from stars inside the HST fields leak out of the area covered by the HST fields. We do not find any correlation between leakage of ionizing photons and Hα luminosity for the H II regions in our HST fields. However, the HST fields do not include very luminous H II regions, and it would be worthwhile to see if there is any trend at higher luminosities. If stellar photons alone are responsible for ionizing the DIG, the current results are consistent with no or few ionizing photons escaping from the galaxy.

Diffused ionized gas in the spiral galaxy M31

We present a study of diffuse ionized gas (DIG, or WIM for warm ionized medium) in the nearby spiral M31, based on charge coupled device (CCD) imagery in H alpha and (S II) emission lines. We find that the DIG in M31 contributes 40% of the observed total H alpha luminosity, and at least 20% of the total after correction for extinction. This fraction is constant across the disk of M31. The total H alpha luminosity of M31, corrected for extinction, is about 4.1 x 10(exp 40) ergs/s. This implies a low star formation rate of about 0.35 M solar mass/yr, in agreement with earlier estimates. DIG is concentrated near regions of star formation. The average emission measure (EM) perpendicular to the disk ranges from about 6 pc cm(exp-6) in weaker spiral arms to 15 pc cm(exp-6) in the main spiral arms, with (rare) peak values reaching 50 pc cm(exp-6). Overall, the EM in the main arms is substantially higher than that of DIG in the solar neighborhood, implying higher power requirements per unit area in these regions of M31. However, the strong concentration of DIG near regions of star formation keeps the total area covered by DIG in M31 relatively small, which makes it possible to sustain this gas in spite of the low star formation rate. We argue that the DIG extent in vertical direction in M31 may well be lower than in our Galaxy, because of its low star formation rate. A simple parameterization of the electron distribution then shows that the DIG in the spiral arms may contribute between 15% and 40% of the total atomic gas column. The average electron densities implied by the high EMs reached in some regions seem to indicate a higher thermal pressure in the DIG than in the diffuse H I gas in M31. This pressure in-equilibrium can be avoided if part of the diffuse emissions due to a denser component, as proposed most recently by Miller & Cox, because this would reduce the EM and implied pressures for the actual widespread DIG. Column densities of the ionized gas might then be lower as well. We also show, however, that it is not possible to attribute all of the diffuse emission to a relatively dense component, such as earlier proposed extended low-density H II regions. The DIG in M31 shows an overall (S II)/H alpha intensity ratio of 0.5, significantly higher than in discrete H II regions, and similar to that in other galaxies. This number does not vary with radius in M31. There is a suggestion that (S II)/H alpha intensity may be higher at the lowest detectable emission measures, up to 0.7 or even 1. The discrete source population in M31 also shows a trend toward increasing (S II)/H alpha flux ratios as the sources become more diffuse. Few sources (apart from supernova remnants), however, reach the value of 0.5 found in the DIG as a whole. The distinct spectral signature of the DIG in M31, and its energy requirements favor photoionization of the gas, although it is likely that shock ionization occurs in selected regions.

A wide-field H I mosaic of Messier 31 - II. The disk warp, rotation, and the dark matter halo

Aims. We test cosmological models of structure formation using the rotation curve of the nearest spiral galaxy, M 31, determined using a recent deep, full-disk 21-cm imaging survey smoothed to 466 pc resolution. Methods. We fit a tilted ring model to the HI data from 8 to 37 kpc and establish conclusively the presence of a dark halo and its density distribution via dynamical analysis of the rotation curve. Results. The disk of M 31 warps from 25 kpc outwards and becomes more inclined with respect to our line of sight. Newtonian dynamics without a dark matter halo provide a very poor fit to the rotation curve. In the framework of modified Newtonian dynamic (MOND) however the 21-cm rotation curve is well fitted by the gravitational potential traced by the baryonic matter density alone. The inclusion of a dark matter halo with a density profile as predicted by hierarchical clustering and structure formation in a ACDM cosmology makes the mass model in newtonian dynamic compatible with the rotation curve data. The dark halo concentration parameter for the best fit is C = 12 and its total mass is 1.2 x 10 12 M ⊙ . If a dark halo model with a constant-density core is considered, the core radius has to be larger than 20 kpc in order for the model to provide a good fit to the data. We extrapolate the best-fit ACDM and constant-density core mass models to very large galactocentric radii, comparable to the size of the dark matter halo. A comparison of the predicted mass with the M 31 mass determined at such large radii using other dynamical tracers, confirms the validity of our results. In particular the ACDM dark halo model which best fits the 21-cm data well reproduces the mass of M 31 traced out to 560 kpc. Our best estimate for the total mass of M 31 is 1.3 x 10 12 M ⊙ , with 12% baryonic fraction and only 6% of the baryons in the neutral gas phase.

Andromeda X, a New Dwarf Spheroidal Satellite of M31: Photometry

We report the discovery of Andromeda X, a new dwarf spheroidal satellite of M31, based on stellar photometry from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. Using follow-up imaging data we have estimated its distance and other physical properties. We find that Andromeda X has a dereddened central surface brightness of μV, 0 ~ 26.7 mag arcsec-2 and a total apparent magnitude of Vtot ~ 16.1, which at the derived distance modulus, (m - M)0 ~ 24.12-24.34, yields an absolute magnitude of MV ~ -8.1 ± 0.5; these values are quite comparable to those of Andromeda IX, a previously discovered low-luminosity M31 satellite. The discoveries of Andromeda X and of numerous other extremely faint satellites around M31 and the Milky Way in the past few years suggest that such objects may be plentiful in the Local Group.

Chandra detection of a hot gaseous corona around the edge-on galaxy ngc 4631

We present a Chandra X-ray observation that shows, unambiguously for the first time, the presence of a giant diffuse X-ray-emitting corona around the edge-on disk galaxy NGC 4631. This corona, with a characteristic thermal temperature of × 106 K, extends as far as 8 kpc away from the galactic plane. The X-ray morphology resembles the radio halo of the galaxy, indicating a close connection between outflows of hot gas, cosmic rays, and the magnetic field from the galactic disk. Enhanced diffuse X-ray emission is apparently enclosed by numerous Hα-emitting loops blistered out from the central disk of the galaxy, as is evident in a comparison with our deep Hubble Space Telescope imaging.