Gideon Onumah

Improving urban food supply and distribution in developing countries: the role of city authorities ☆

Abstract The case is made for improving food supply and distribution (FSD) in developing cities, particularly to benefit the poor. The case rests on evidence of increasing urbanisation of the poor, frequent conflicts between traders and city authorities, badly planned markets and urban agriculture, increasing congestion and poor roads. Ways to improve urban FSD are suggested, with examples of good practice. A leading role for city authorities is indicated. Fulfilling this role requires abilities which many developing city authorities currently lack, including pursuing cross-departmental policies. Evidence for the case is not complete: in particular, empirical studies are needed of the extent to which good practice in urban planning and management improves food access and quality and reduces prices.

Empowering Smallholder Farmers in Markets: strengthening the advocacy capacities of national farmer organisations through collaborative research

The Empowering Smallholder Farmers in Markets programme (ESFIM) supported the advocacy capacities of national farmer organisations (NFOs) for improving smallholder market access. The programme gave NFOs in 11 countries the opportunity to contract local experts to strengthen the evidence-base of their advocacy proposals. By means of a participative process, each NFO analysed the key advocacy issues for which research support was most needed. This resulted in a diversity of themes and advocacy processes. These ranged from research and advocacy on the role of cooperatives in Uruguayan innovation policies to a simulation game on market dynamics in a commodity exchange in the Philippines, and from the review of various seed multiplication programmes in Malawi to the legal and administrative hurdles preventing smallholders from selling to government procurement programmes in Peru and Bolivia. We describe the dynamics surrounding research partnerships in each of the 11 countries and reflect on results of this research-for-advocacy. We also assess the impact of the ESFIM programme on the advocacy capacity of the NFOs. We used a self-evaluation technique, in which board members considered a list of statements covering five capacities that are deemed necessary for effective advocacy. We compared their scores with the observations of external stakeholders who were active in the agricultural sector and knowledgeable about the NFOs’ activities. We conclude that ESFIM has helped to increase coherence in advocacy priorities and has influenced decision making on key policy issues, with encouraging results. In most organisations, ESFIM contributed to the advocacy process, together with many other actors and factors defining advocacy. Based on these experiences, we suggest earmarking funds for NFO-led research support, in order to facilitate the participation of smallholders in the design and monitoring of development policies.

Reforming the Role of Government in Agricultural Markets

For most of the twentieth century, particularly after the 1930s depression, governments worldwide intervened substantially in both input and output markets for agriculture, in some countries excluding private firms altogether. Seed, feed, fertiliser, pesticides, finance and advice were provided by state organisations or with state subsidies. Fixed asset investment (e.g. land purchase and development — dams, roads, fences) was often similarly assisted. Crop purchase was often carried out by widely distributed state depots offering standard prices across a whole country (pan-territorial pricing). Grain stocks were accumulated by the state in order to set and stabilise consumer prices. Large bureaucracies were set up to administer public agricultural services, imposing much budgetary cost — particularly for price stabilisation, mostly grains. The main purpose was to achieve self-sufficiency in food staples or to promote exports of agricultural commodities.

How can Quality be Assured

Traditionally the public role in quality assurance for agricultural produce has been considered high compared to other goods because: external effects of agricultural produce and food processing can be great: the public is especially concerned about diseases (e.g. salmonella, e-coli, BSE) and cancer-related substances (carcinogens) carried in food and feed. These require standards, enforced by inspection and sometimes by licensing in the case of premises (food processing, restaurants). Public regulation against infectious diseases (e.g. in water, animals, plants, seeds, feeds, food) is present in most countries, with enforcement by government agencies, central or local, and varying greatly in effectiveness. reputation effects are limited for agricultural produce: agricultural produce is in many cases a commodity produced by numerous farms, rather than a unique product of a recognised firm. Reputation effects are stronger where the product is clearly identified with the seller (branded goods, goods immediately consumed, e.g. restaurant food) and where quality attributes are visible (‘transparency’). Neither has applied strongly to unprocessed agricultural produce.

Government and Markets: Theory and Concepts

The middle decades of the twentieth century saw a rise in the role of the state worldwide. State expenditure as a proportion of GDP rose dramatically, influenced in part by the replacement of the market with the state in the Soviet Union and China to stem perceived evils of capitalism, and by the popular clamour post-World War Two for better health, education and infrastructure. But with market economies outperforming centrally planned economies, and much state enterprise accumulating losses, the tide of ideology and state reform in the 1980s and 1990s turned towards expanding the private sector. The main targets for privatisation were state manufacturing and state farming enterprises. But state services were brought into the privatisation focus too.

Can Food Supplies be Entrusted to the Market

The central question for governments in liberalising the grain trade is whether food supplies can be entrusted to the market. Previous chapters suggest the increased orientation by countries worldwide to making markets the basis of their staple food systems. The key practical issues are, first, how the process of deregulating the grain trade internally and externally can be managed politically, without disrupting food supplies or markets for farmers; and second, how the staple food trade can be enabled to work efficiently, cover the whole country and be accessed by the whole population.

Developing Agricultural Trade: New Roles for Government

State trading and restriction of private agricultural trade became virtually the norm in many countries from the mid-twentieth century, particularly in the grain trade, owing to distrust of private trade, and policies of national self-sufficiency in grain and protection of domestic agriculture from foreign competition. High costs of state trading and public stocking of grain, plus the perceived benefits of market development, have swung policy preferences towards reducing trade restrictions and developing the private trade. Better trade information, quality assurance through branding and traceability, and the emergence of futures and options markets for the trading of risk are features of market development in agricultural trade. Market failure in the sector is thereby reduced. This provides the opportunity for government to shift its role in agricultural trade from buyer and seller to provider of infrastructure, facilitator of trade development1 and regulator of trade in the public interest (providing a legal framework, ensuring competition, consumer safety and protecting natural resources).

What public role is there in market information

Recent market development efforts in developing and transition economies place much emphasis on the state’s role in improving the environment for business. Provision of market information is often viewed as a priority, because adequate information about buyers, sellers and prices is usually lacking in poorly developed markets. In some countries there are long-standing market information services (MISs) run by government. Others have been set up recently with help from donors. In the light of theory and current developments, this chapter reviews briefly market information systems run by government departments in Ghana, India and Sri Lanka, plus one initiative by a farmers’ representative organisation in Zimbabwe.

Can Public Services to Marketing be Contracted Out

Public services to agriculture are in a state of change. The force for change is the ongoing effort, reflected in the ‘new public management’, to bring market relations into public services provision as much as possible. Contracting between buyers and sellers of services is one of the key components of this approach. This chapter first overviews contracting in relation to the new public management and the circumstances under which contracting succeeds or fails. Case studies of contracting out public services to agricultural marketing in developing countries are then presented and discussed: food security rice stocks in Sri Lanka; wheat milling in Sri Lanka; public grain storage in India; exporting maize from Kenya; and rural feeder road construction and maintenance in Ghana. Lessons from the case studies are brought together in the conclusion. The main observation is that managing reform of public organisations, rather than managing contracting out, is the underlying constraint on making NPM-style public management innovations work.

Can public marketing agencies be reformed

Can public marketing agencies be reformed and play a productive role in developing agricultural markets, either by becoming competitive private firms or by providing public services beneficial to trade? Or is dissolution the only option when policy is to encourage market development? This chapter focuses on reform of public marketing agencies in liberalisation of agricultural marketing, principally in Zimbabwe, Sri Lanka, Ghana, India and Kenya, in the light of theory regarding commercialisation of public agencies.