Gilbert W. Smith

Dilute Antimonide Nitrides for Very Long Wavelength Infrared Applications

The addition of small amounts of nitrogen to III-V semiconductors leads to a large degree of band-gap bowing, giving rise to band-gaps smaller than in the associated binary materials. The addition of a small percentage of nitrogen to GaSb or InSb is predicted to move their response wavelengths into the long or even very long wavelength IR ranges. We report the growth of GaNxSb1-x by MBE, using an r.f. plasma nitrogen source, examining the influence of plasma power, substrate temperature and growth rate. We demonstrate high structural quality, as determined by x-ray diffraction, and show a reduction in band-gap by over 300meV, compared with GaSb, based on FTIR transmission spectroscopy. We also report initial experiments on the growth of InNxSb1-x and Ga1-yInyNxSb1-x, with a view to extending the response into the long and very long wavelength IR ranges.

Micromachined modulator arrays for use in free-space optical communication systems

A summary is presented of some of the design criteria relevant to the realisation of silicon micromachined modulator arrays for use in free-space optical communication systems. Theoretical performance levels achievable are compared with values measured on experimental devices produced using a modified Multi-User MEMS Process (MUMPS). Devices capable of realising modulation rates in excess of 300 kHz are described and their optical characteristics compared with published data on devices based on multiple quantum well technology.

A large area reconfigurable MOEMS microshutter array for coded aperture imaging systems

Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations used a fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. Recently applications have emerged in the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems and system studies have shown that considerable advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a reconfigurable mask. Previously we reported on the early feasibility of realising such a mask based on polysilicon micr-opto-electromechanical systems (MOEMS) technology and early results in the visible and near IR bands. This employs interference effects to modulate incident light - achieved by tuning a large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot optical cavities via an applied voltage whilst a hysteretic row/column addressing scheme is used to control the state of individual elements. In this paper we present transmission results from the target mid-IR band (3-5μm), compare them with theory and describe the scale up from a 3x3 proof-of-concept MOEMS microshutter array to a 560 x 560 element array (2cm x 2cm chip) with the associated driver electronics and embedded control - including aspects of electronic design, addressing control and integration. The resultant microsystem represents a core building block to realise much larger reconfigurable masks using a tiled approach with further integration challenges in the future.

Reconfigurable mask for adaptive coded aperture imaging (ACAI) based on an addressable MOEMS microshutter array

Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations use a fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. More recent applications have emerged in the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems. System studies have shown that considerable advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a reconfigurable mask. We report on work to develop a novel, reconfigurable mask based on micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) technology employing interference effects to modulate incident light in the mid-IR band (3-5μm). This is achieved by tuning a large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot cavities by applying an electrostatic force to adjust the gap between a moveable upper polysilicon mirror plate supported on suspensions and underlying fixed (electrode) layers on a silicon substrate. A key advantage of the modulator technology developed is that it is transmissive and high speed (e.g. 100kHz) - allowing simpler imaging system configurations. It is also realised using a modified standard polysilicon surface micromachining process (i.e. MUMPS-like) that is widely available and hence should have a low production cost in volume. We have developed designs capable of operating across the entire mid-IR band with peak transmissions approaching 100% and high contrast. By using a pixelated array of small mirrors, a large area device comprising individually addressable elements may be realised that allows reconfiguring of the whole mask at speeds in excess of video frame rates.

A 2x2 multi-chip reconfigurable MOEMS mask: a stepping stone to large format microshutter arrays for coded aperture applications

Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations used a fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. Recently applications have emerged in the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems and system studies have shown that considerable advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a reconfigurable mask. Previously reported work focused on realising a 2x2cm single chip mask in the mid-IR based on polysilicon micro-optoelectro- mechanical systems (MOEMS) technology and its integration with ASIC drive electronics using conventional wire bonding. It employs interference effects to modulate incident light - achieved by tuning a large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot optical cavities via an applied voltage and uses a hysteretic row/column scheme for addressing. In this paper we report on the latest results in the mid-IR for the single chip reconfigurable MOEMS mask, trials in scaling up to a mask based on a 2x2 multi-chip array and report on progress towards realising a large format mask comprising 44 MOEMS chips. We also explore the potential of such large, transmissive IR spatial light modulator arrays for other applications and in the current and alternative architectures.

Design issues for tunable filters for optical telecommunications

A summary is presented of some of the issues facing the developers of tunable filters for use in optical communication systems, including those exploiting acousto- optic, thermo-optic and electro-optic effects. The potential of electromechanically tuned variants is also assessed in relation to devices micromachined from silicon. Emphasis is given to electro-optically tuned devices, with experimental data presented for an example based on a nanophase polymer dispersed liquid crystal composite.

Large area transmissive modulator for a remotely-interrogated MEMS-based optical tag

The development of a micro-opto-electro-mechanical system (MOEMS) technology employing interference effects to modulate incident light in the near-IR band (1550nm) over a wide angular range (120 degrees) is reported. Modulation is achieved by tuning a large array of Fabry-Perot cavities via the application of an electrostatic force to adjust the gap between a moveable mirror and the underlying silicon substrate. The optical design determines the layer thicknesses; however, the speed and power are determined by the geometry of the individual moveable elements. Electro-mechanical trade-offs will be presented as well as a key innovation of utilising overshoot in the device response in reduced pressure environment to reduce the drive voltage. Devices have been manufactured in a modified polysilicon surface micromachining process with anti-reflection coatings on the back of the silicon substrate. Measurements of individual mirror elements and arrays of mirrors at 1550nm show excellent uniformity across the array. This enables good response to an incident signal over a wide field of view when integrated with a silicon retroreflector in a passive optical tag. In conjunction with appropriate anti-stiction coatings, lifetimes of over 100 million cycles have been demonstrated. Key advantages of the modulator are that it is low cost being based on standard polysilicon micromachining; high speed (>100kHz) and robust due to utilising a massively parallel array of identical compact devices; low power for portable applications; and operates in transmission - allowing simple integration with a retroreflector in a passive tag for halfduplex free-space optical communications to a remote interrogator.

A scalable multi-chip architecture to realise large-format microshutter arrays for coded aperture applications

Coded aperture imaging has been used for astronomical applications for several years. Typical implementations used a fixed mask pattern and are designed to operate in the X-Ray or gamma ray bands. Recently applications have emerged in the visible and infra red bands for low cost lens-less imaging systems and system studies have shown that considerable advantages in image resolution may accrue from the use of multiple different images of the same scene - requiring a reconfigurable mask. Previously we reported on the realization of a 2x2cm single chip mask in the mid-IR based on polysilicon micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) technology and its integration with ASIC drive electronics using conventional wire bonding. The MOEMS architecture employs interference effects to modulate incident light - achieved by tuning a large array of asymmetric Fabry-Perot optical cavities via an applied voltage and uses a hysteretic row/column scheme for addressing. In this paper we present the latest transmission results in the mid-IR band (3-5μm) and report on progress in developing a scalable architecture based on a tiled approach using multiple 2 x 2cm MOEMS chips with associated control ASICs integrated using flip chip technology. Initial work has focused on a 2 x 2 tiled array as a stepping stone towards an 8 x 8 array.

Nodular defects in sputtered coatings

Significant advances have been made in the area of reactive sputtering to accommodate industry requirements for high performance coatings. A review is presented of progress in the field, highlighting the results of studies of specific films produced by various techniques. Ion beam sputtering, originally exploited for producing laser gyro coatings, has become one of the standard methods of producing narrow band filters for dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) in the telecommunications industry. More recently, other techniques have also emerged exploiting advances made in the opto-electronics industry, notably high-density remote plasma techniques. It has been found that no process is able to generate films that are entirely free of defects, but significant differences occur in the geometrical form of the defects produced. Some are suggestive of the role that vapor-liquid-solid growth mechanisms may play in their formation.

Integrated micromachined filters for wavelength division multiplexing

Using deep-dry etching techniques it is possible to realise filters for use in optical telecommunication based on silicon/air cavities with a high degree of finesse, and which are oriented substantially perpendicular to the surface of the silicon substrate. This geometry is well suited to their incorporation in hollow-waveguides or within ridge waveguide structures. The optical characteristics of such devices are determined by a number of factors, including the designs of the optical cavities and the degree of surface perfection achievable by the deep-dry etching process.