Ginger A. Moore

Parasympathetic and sympathetic responses to the strange situation in infants and mothers from avoidant and securely attached dyads

Vagal reactivity and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) were assessed in infants (M age = 13.55 months) and their mothers during the Strange Situation Paradigm (SSP) to investigate differences in physiological responses in a sample of insecure-avoidant and securely-attached dyads (N = 132). Infants classified as insecure-avoidant had significantly higher vagal withdrawal during the SSP and higher sAA overall, suggesting that the avoidant attachment pattern is associated with a greater allostatic load. During separation episodes of the SSP, all mothers showed significant vagal withdrawal, suggesting greater attempts at regulation. During the last reunion, typically the most stressful episode for infants, mothers of secure infants showed greater vagal withdrawal than mothers of insecure-avoidant infants, suggesting greater attempts by these mothers at interactive repair. Results for mothers and infants supported the allostatic load theory.

Gene-Environment Contributions to the Development of Infant Vagal Reactivity: The Interaction of Dopamine and Maternal Sensitivity

This study investigated dopamine receptor genes (DRD2 and DRD4) and maternal sensitivity as predictors of infant respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and RSA reactivity, purported indices of vagal tone and vagal regulation, in a challenge task at 3, 6, and 12 months in 173 infant-mother dyads. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) revealed that at 3 and 6 months, RSA withdrawal in response to maternal separation was greater (suggesting expected physiological regulation) in infants without the DRD2 risk allele than those with the risk allele. At 12 months, infants with the risk allele who were also exposed to maternal sensitivity showed levels of RSA withdrawal comparable to infants who were not at genetic risk. Findings demonstrate the importance of developmental analysis of gene-environment interaction.

Psychophysiological correlates of parenting behavior in mothers of young children

This study investigated HPA and vagal functioning as correlates of parenting in mothers of 175 six-month-old children. Salivary cortisol indexed HPA functioning and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) reduction indexed vagal regulation. Positive engagement and negative intrusiveness were observed during the Face-to-Face Still Face Paradigm (FFSFP) reunion and a semi-structured free play episode. Mixed modeling was used to examine differences in maternal behaviors across contexts as a function of psychophysiology. Main effects of cortisol levels, as well as interactions with RSA reduction and context, predicted negative intrusiveness. Mothers with high cortisol exhibited more negative intrusiveness if they also had lower RSA reduction. Mothers were also less negatively intrusive during the FFSFP than the free play if they had lower cortisol levels. There were no associations between psychophysiological measures and positive engagement. The findings suggest: (1) that parenting behaviors are associated with maternal stress physiology; (2) considerations of single physiological systems related to parenting behaviors may be incomplete; and (3) type and context of behaviors must be considered when examining biobehavioral associations with parenting.

INCARCERATED WOMEN'S PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING DURING PREGNANCY

To understand experiences of incarcerated pregnant women, 25 pregnant women in a state prison were interviewed. Responses were coded for frequency and intensity of narrative themes. Psychological distress and recall of past relationships with mothers were assessed using questionnaires. Participants reported moderate depression and high hostility and recalled their own mothers as high in control and low in warmth. Depressive symptoms were positively correlated with themes of separation, attachment, visitation, jealousy toward interim caregivers, and cognitive coping. Recalling lower levels of mothers warmth was correlated with more frequent thoughts about reunification with infants. Recalling higher levels of mothers control was correlated with greater confidence in parenting and planning for custody. Implications for mother–infant health and intervention are discussed.

Parenting Behaviors and Vagal Tone at Six Months Predict Attachment Disorganization at Twelve Months

The authors investigated the relationships among parenting behaviors, infant vagal tone, and subsequent attachment classification. Vagal tone was assessed among 6-month olds (n = 95) during the still-face paradigm (SFP) via respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), while attachment security and disorganization were measured at 12 months during the strange situation procedure (SSP). Infants demonstrating higher levels of RSA during the normal interaction and reunion episodes of the SFP whose mothers were also rated as negative-intrusive exhibited higher levels of attachment disorganization at 12 months, while infants with lower RSA and mothers who were negative-intrusive did not exhibit higher levels of disorganization. These results suggest that high levels of RSA may not be adaptive within the context of negative-intrusive parenting.

About Face! Infant Facial Expression of Emotion

In honoring Carroll Izard’s contributions to emotion research, we discuss infant facial activity and emotion expression. We consider the debated issue of whether infants are biologically prepared to express specific emotions. We offer a perspective that potentially integrates differing viewpoints on infant facial expression of emotion. Specifically, we suggest that evolution has prepared infants with innate action readiness patterns, which are crucial for early infant–caregiver social interaction, and in the course of social interaction specific facial configurations acquire functional significance, becoming associated with specific emotions. Research has not confirmed the presence of innate neurophysiological action patterns that map onto discrete emotions but evidence indicates that the possibility has not been ruled out.

The Development of Early Profiles of Temperament: Characterization, Continuity, and Etiology

This study used a data-driven, person-centered approach to examine the characterization, continuity, and etiology of child temperament from infancy to toddlerhood. Data from 561 families who participated in an ongoing prospective adoption study, the Early Growth and Development Study, were used to estimate latent profiles of temperament at 9, 18, and 27 months. Results indicated that four profiles of temperament best fit the data at all three points of assessment. The characterization of profiles was stable over time, while membership in profiles changed across age. Facets of adoptive parent and birth mother personality were predictive of childrens profile membership at each age, providing preliminary evidence for specific environmental and genetic influences on patterns of temperament development from infancy to toddlerhood.

Strategies for Understanding the Mechanisms of Mothering and Fathering

It is well established that parenting influences child development. However, the mechanisms through which parenting influences child development are less clear. The role of genetic influences, via the parents or via the child is the first considered criterion. A majority of studies examining genetic influences on parenting have used child-based designs in which the children vary in degree of genetic relatedness to one another. Factor analyses of parenting behaviors assessed using twin and adoption designs and numerous studies of parenting from a socialization perspective have found two primary orthogonal factors: parental warmth and parental control. In most studies, parental warmth, support, and negativity are influenced by the childs genes and the family-wide environment i.e., shared environment. The construct of parental control, however, shows shared environmental and little to no genetic influence in such studies. In addition to the use of genetically informed child- and parent-based designs to further the understanding of genetic and environmental influences on parenting, randomized controlled trial (RCT) designs are an alternative design type that can provide unique information about factors that influence parenting. For example, highly specified environmental RCTs that target specific parenting behaviors and that show change in parenting in the intervention condition (compared to the control condition) can provide evidence of environmental influences on parenting. Further, when such environmentally based parenting interventions lead to change in child behaviors, parenting may operate as an environmental mechanism of change.

Developmental patterns of anger from infancy to middle childhood predict problem behaviors at age 8.

Anger is a central characteristic of negative affect and is relatively stable from infancy onward. Absolute levels of anger typically peak in early childhood and diminish as children become socialized and better able to regulate emotions. From infancy to school age, however, there are also individual differences in rank-order levels of anger. For example, although decreasing in absolute levels, some children may stay the same and others may increase in rank order relative to their peers. Although change in rank order of anger over time may provide unique insight into children’s social development, little is known concerning variations in developmental patterns of anger from a rank-order perspective and how these patterns are related to children’s behavioral adjustment. The current study (N = 361) used group-based trajectory analysis and identified 6 distinct patterns of parent-reported child anger by rank across 9 months to 7 years: low–stable rank, average–stable rank, average–decreasing rank, average–increasing rank, high–decreasing rank, and high–stable rank. Most children (65.1%) were in low- to average-rank groups. However, 28.2% and 6.7% of the children were in average–increasing and high–stable groups, respectively. Children in the high–stable group showed elevated levels of externalizing and internalizing problems at age 8 compared to children in the average–stable, average–decreasing, and high–decreasing groups. These findings help to clarify different patterns of anger development across childhood and how they may relate to later problem behaviors.

Postpartum Mothers' Leisure-Time Exercise Behavior Is Linked to Positive Emotion during Partner Discussions.

ABSTRACT Purpose: Marital dissatisfaction and conflict often increase for couples after the birth of a child and are evident in fewer positive family interactions and more negative family interactions. Because exercise is known to increase positive emotions and decrease negative emotions, the current study examined the extent to which higher levels of mothers’ exercise during the postpartum period were related to more positive and fewer negative emotion-expressive behaviors with their infants’ fathers. Method: Mothers’ (N = 46; M = 8 months postpartum) positive and negative expressive behaviors were coded during couples’ discussions of current conflict and positive family experiences. Mothers self-reported their leisure-time exercise behavior. Results: First-time mothers and mothers with higher levels of leisure-time exercise behavior displayed higher levels of positive expressive behaviors during couples’ discussions. Conclusions: Exercise may be associated with increased positive emotion and, in turn, can have great potential to improve family relationships during the postpartum period when marital stress normatively increases, particularly for mothers with more than 1 child. Future longitudinal studies are needed to understand exercise patterns across the postpartum period to identify the most effective timing and optimal level of exercise that lead to more positive expressive behaviors.